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THE ULTIMATE CREDIT-BY-EXAM STUDY GUIDE FOR: Developmental Psychology 4 th Edition 11/08/2024

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Contents

Chapter1: Introduction to Developmental Psychology (The Lifespan)

A. The Basics

1 3 6 8 9

B. Domains of Development

C. Perspectives and Issues in Developmental Psychology

D. Development in Context E. Approaches to Development

F. Sensory Inputs

12 14 16 19 20 20 21 22 23 24 24 25 26 28 29 31 32 34 35 41 43 44 46 51 52 53 55 56 34 46

G. Using the Ecological Approach

H. Theories of Developmental Psychology I. Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development

J. Evaluating Freud’s Theories

K. Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

L. Behavioral Theory

M. Classical Conditioning N. Operant Conditioning O. Reinforcement Schedule P. Social Learning Theory Q. Cognitive Theory R. Sociocultural Theory T. The Humanistic Theory U. Evolutionary Psychology Chapter 1: Review Questions

S. Information Processing and Memory

Chapter2: Development of Brain and Nervous System

A. The Background

B. The Central Nervous System (CNS)

C. Parts of the Brain

D. The Peripheral Nervous System Chapter 2: Review Questions

Chapter3: Genetics, Prenatal Development, and Childbirth

A. Concepts of Genetics

B. Genetic and Chromosomal Abnormalities

C. Prenatal Development D. Fetal Brain Development

E. Principles of Growth and Development

F. Teratogens

G. Diseases

56 56 57 57 58 62 63 65 65 66 67 68 69 69 72 72 73 75 79 80 80 82 84 85 87 87 88 89 92 93 94 95 96 98 98 98

H. Medicinal Drugs I. Psychoactive Drugs

J. Low Birth Weight (LBW) K. Childbirth and Bonding

L. Factors in Early Development Chapter 3: Review Questions

Chapter4: Infancy and Toddlerhood

A. Physical Development B. Motor Skill Development

C. Reflexes

D. Sensory-Perceptual Development

E. Nutrition

F. Cognitive Development G. Sensory Coordination

H. Habituation & Dishabituation

I. Language Development

J. Social and Emotional Development

K. Personality

L. Non-Parental Daycare M. Sleep and the Sleep Cycle

N. Developmental Milestones (Birth to Toddlerhood)

O. Early Intervention

Chapter 4: Review Questions

Chapter5: Early Childhood

A. Physical Development B. Cognitive Development C. Language and Grammar

D. Learning Theories

E. Information Processing and Memory

F. Parent-Child Relationships

G. Sibling Relationships and Birth Order

H. Play Behaviors

I. Media in Early Childhood

J. Childhood Fears

K. Concerns in Early Childhood Chapter 5: Review Questions

100 102

Chapter6: Middle Childhood

A. Physical Development

102

B. Cognitive Development

103 104 104 106 108 110 110 112 114 115 115 118 120 120 122 123 124 125 126 129 131 133 134 136 138 141 142 144 146 149 150 151 153 155 114 133 146

C. Language D. Intelligence

E. Children with Special Needs

F. Social and Emotional Development

G. Difficulties of Adjustments

H. Possible Conflicts in Middle Childhood

Chapter 6: Review Questions

Chapter7: Adolescence

A. Physical Development B. Puberty Hormones

C. Health and Hazards of Adolescence

D. Adolescent Cognition

E. Adolescent Sexual Activity

F. Adolescent Morality

G. Adolescent Psychosocial Development

H. Parenting and Peers I. Attribution Styles J. Vocational Choices

K. Concerns and Conflicts of Adolescence

L. Gender Schema Theory Chapter 7: Review Questions

Chapter8: Early Adulthood

A. Physical Development and Changes B. Concerns and Conflicts of Early Adulthood C. Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood D. Psychosocial Development in Early Adulthood E. Vocational Achievement in Early Adulthood

F. Levinson’s Adult Development Theory

Chapter 8: Review Questions

Chapter9: Middle Adulthood

A. Physical Development in Middle Adulthood B. Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood

C. Psychosocial Development

D. Social Dynamics

E. Stages of Career Development Chapter 9: Review Questions

Chapter 10: Late Adulthood

157

A. Age-Related Demographic Changes

157 158 158 160 161 161 162 163 163 164 165 166 166 167 168 170 171 171 172 173 177 179 180 181 181 183 184 184 185 185 187 170 179

B. Ageism

C. Physical Changes of Late Adulthood D. Health Problems of Late Adulthood

E. Wellness

F. Achievement G. Aging Theories

H. Cognitive Development I. Dementia and Alzheimer’s J. Psychological Problems

K. Psychosocial Development Theories

L. Work and Retirement

M. Relationships and Intimacy

N. Conflicts and Concerns of Late Adulthood

Chapter 10: Review Questions

Chapter 11: Death and Dying

A. Attitude Toward Death B. The Hospice Movement

C. The Dying Process

D. Bereavement and Grief E. Right to Die and Euthanasia Chapter 11: Review Questions

Chapter 12: Disorders and Other Mental Health Conditions

A. Diagnosis

B. Anxiety Disorders

C. Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

D. Mood Disorders

E. Personality Disorders

F. Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders

G. Neurodevelopmental Disorders

H. Neurocognitive Disorders

I. Sensory Deprivation

Chapter 12: Review Questions

Chapter 13: Research Methods in Psychology

189

A. Bloom’s Taxonomy B. The Scientific Method

189 190

C. Research Designs

191 192 193 193 195

D. Data Collection Methods E. Interpreting Study Results

F. Ethics in Research

Chapter 13: Review Questions

Practice Exam

198

Practice Exam AnswerKey

221

Chapter1: Introduction to Developmental Psychology (The Lifespan) Overview

There are many reasons why it is important to study Developmental Psychology. Some reasons include seeking an understanding of patient needs and being self-reflective. These are just a couple of reasons of importance. Also, learning about Developmental Psychology will help you, the student, learn how to become a better-informed professional in your field of choice. Studying developmental psychology will better understand many clients or patients’ psychological, emotional, and physical needs. It is also important that one learns about the importance of being self-reflective, which will help you understand your personal life stages and what will motivate you and help you understand your clients or patients in your field. In this first chapter, we will discuss the basic concepts of each of the stages of the lifespan. Hopefully, learning these concepts in chronological order will help you grasp these concepts and build a starting foundation for the different psychological schools of thought. It is important to remember the information presented to you in this chapter. The information you gain from this chapter will be presented in other parts of this study guide. The concepts and terms commonly asked in the exam will be in boldtext and italicized. Learning Objectives: ● Describe the domains of development. ● Understand the various contexts in which development occurs. ● Explain the major theories of developmental psychology and the people associated with these theories. A. The Basics Previously, psychologists believed that psychological development stopped after adolescence ended. After more research and studies about psychological development, it has been found that development occurs from birth through to death. The lifespan is the processes that occur between birth and death. The maximum lifespan is the longest period of time a species can live. When it comes to the human lifespan, their maximum lifespan is nearly 120 years. When thinking about lifespan, it is thought of more as the average lifespan, which can be defined as the average age reached by a given population member. The average lifespan is not the same between males and females and can be quite different, depending on cultures and geographic locations. Life expectancy is known as the number of years a person is expected to live. The chart below shows how the human lifespan can be organized into different categories. At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

Terms to be familiar with:

● Lifespan - The process between birth and death. ● Life Expectancy - The number of years a person is expected to live. ● Longevity - A long duration of an individual lifespan.

● Maximum Lifespan - The longest period of time a member of a species has been known to live. ● Average Lifespan - The statistical average age reached by members of a given population.

Stage

AgeRange

Prenatal

Conception through Birth

Infancy

Birth – 2 years old

Early Childhood

2 – 5 years old

Middle Childhood

6 – 11 years old

Adolescence

12 – 18 years old

Early Adulthood

19 – 34 years old

Middle Adulthood

35 – 64 years old

Late Adulthood

64 years of age and up

One thing not included in the table is death and dying. Still, it is a part of the lifespan, and each case of death and dying is different for each person. Some die from old age, and some die from diseases such as cancer, which can occur at any age. The ages can vary at each stage, but this table can be used as a general guideline as it helps provide a guideline to approximate ages and the stage of the lifespan. Average Life Expectancy Through History

Life expectancy has varied significantly throughout history and across different regions of the world. Factors such as advances in healthcare, nutrition, sanitation, and public health measures have played a crucial role in shaping life expectancy over time. An overview of average life expectancy through different historical periods: Prehistoric and Ancient Times: Life expectancy was relatively low in prehistoric and ancient times. Many people died during infancy or childhood due to infectious

diseases, malnutrition, and lack of medical care. It is estimated that the average life expectancy during these periods was often below 30 years. Medieval and Renaissance Eras: Life expectancy increased somewhat during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, but it remained relatively low by modern standards. It typically ranged from 30 to 40 years, with variations depending on social class, region, and access to resources. 18 th and 19 th Centuries: In the 18 th and 19 th centuries, life expectancy began to improve in some parts of the world, particularly in Western Europe and North America. The average life expectancy during this time ranged from the mid-30s to the mid-40s. 20 th Century: The 20 th century saw dramatic improvements in life expectancy, driven by advances in healthcare, sanitation, and nutrition, as well as the development of vaccines and antibiotics. By the mid-20th century, the global average life expectancy had risen to around 50 to 60 years. 21 st Century: Life expectancy continued to increase in most parts of the world throughout the 21st century. By the early 2000s, the global average life expectancy had reached over 70 years; in many developed countries, it exceeded 80 years. However, there were and still are significant disparities between different regions and countries due to variations in healthcare systems and socio-economic conditions. It is important to note that these are general trends, and there have always been variations based on factors such as geographic location, social class, and access to healthcare. Additionally, significant historical events, such as wars, pandemics, and famines, have had a major impact on life expectancy in specific time periods. B. Domains of Development Here are three different domains of developmental psychology. It is easier to study developmental psychology when the three main perspectives are broken down into components. Let’s look at these three components: Biosocial Domain The biosocial domain delves into the intricate interplay between biological and social factors that influence an individual’s development. It encompasses the study of physiological changes within the body and the societal influences that impact these changes. For example, consider a researcher exploring the effects of nutrition on a child’s physiological development. This investigation intertwines concepts of socioeconomic status, societal influences, and biological processes. In the context of this domain, there are two fundamental aspects of development: ● Potential Development: This refers to a child’s maximum growth and development potential under ideal conditions. It represents what a child could achieve with optimal support and resources. ● Actual Development: Actual development reflects how much a child genuinely grows and develops in reality, considering their individual circumstances and experiences.

Example: The Impact of Nutrition on Physical and Psychological Development

The connection between nutrition and both physical and psychological development is profoundly intertwined. Consider the case of a child who lacks access to essential, nutritious foods and primarily consumes less expensive, high-fat, processed items like chips. This dietary pattern can lead to a range of growth issues and health problems, potentially including obesity. Conversely, children who enjoy ready access to a nourishing array of foods, such as fresh fruits and vegetables, experience not only better physical development but also enhanced psychological growth. Cognitive Domain The cognitive domain is concerned with the various facets of cognitive development. Researchers in this domain investigate how children acquire language, the role of perception in cognitive growth, and other mental activities. Key areas studied in the cognitive domain include: ● Thought: How individuals think, problem-solve, and engage in abstract reasoning. ● Perception: The processes through which individuals interpret and make sense of their surroundings. ● Language: The acquisition and development of language skills, including speech and communication. ● Other Mental Activities: A wide range of cognitive processes, such as memory, learning, and decision-making. Researchers in the cognitive domain seek to unravel the mysteries of cognitive development and how it evolves across the lifespan. Psychosocial Domain The psychosocial domain merges the study of psychological aspects like personality, emotions, and relationships with societal influences. “Psych” pertains to individual characteristics, while “social” focuses on societal and environmental contexts. Researchers within this domain aim to understand how individuals interact with society and navigate their psychological and social landscapes throughout their lives. Key areas studied in the psychosocial domain include: ● Personality: The study of an individual’s enduring traits, characteristics, and behavioral patterns. ● Emotions: Exploring the development of emotions, emotional regulation, and their influence on behavior and well-being. ● Relationships: Investigating the formation, maintenance, and impact of interpersonal relationships. ● Societal Influences: Examining the role of society, culture, and societal norms in shaping an individual’s psychosocial development.

Researchers explore the intricate interplay between individual psychological aspects and societal influences. They seek to understand how personality, emotions, and relationships evolve in the context of broader social and environmental factors. To shed light on this, researchers may pose a variety of questions. Here are some examples of questions that researchers in the psychosocial domain might ask: Personality ● How do early childhood experiences shape an individual’s personality traits and enduring characteristics? ● What role does genetics play in the development of personality, and how does it interact with environmental influences? ● How do personality traits change or remain stable across the lifespan, and what factors contribute to these changes? Emotions ● How do children learn to recognize and express emotions, and how does this change with age? ● What are the cultural and societal influences on emotional expression and regulation? ● How do emotions impact decision-making, social interactions, and overall well-being throughout one’s life? Relationships ● What factors contribute to the formation of close interpersonal relationships, such as friendships and romantic partnerships? ● How do attachment patterns established in childhood influence adult relationships? ● What are the long-term effects of positive and negative relationship experiences on mental and emotional well-being? Societal Influences ● How do societal norms and cultural values impact an individual’s sense of identity and self-concept? ● What role does socioeconomic status play in shaping an individual’s opportunities and life outcomes? ● How do societal changes, such as advancements in technology and shifts in societal values, influence psychosocial development across generations? These questions illustrate the multifaceted nature of the psychosocial domain and the intricate relationships between individual psychological aspects and the broader social and environmental contexts. Researchers in this field aim to unravel the complexities of how people adapt and grow within their respective societies throughout their lifespan. These three developmental domains provide a

Chapter2: Development of Brain and Nervous System

Overview

This short chapter focuses on how we process the information we receive and adjust our brain to different functions. Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Describe and name parts of the nervous system and their functions. ● Understand how neurons communicate (Understand how the CNS communicates). ● Identify the different types of neurotransmitters. ● Identify parts of the brain and how they work together. A. The Background

In the quest to unravel the mysteries of human sensation and perception, the groundwork was laid by the pioneering efforts of German scientist Ernst Weber in the 1800s. His research, focused on understanding the sense of touch, led to the recognition that different parts of our bodies possess varying levels of sensitivity. These findings marked the inception of studies into the complex realm of the nervous system. Ernst Weber’s Contribution: Ernst Weber’s studies of tactile sensitivity shed light on how our bodies perceive touch. He determined that certain areas of the body are more sensitive than others, a fundamental insight that paved the way for further investigations into the nervous system’s functioning. Early Development: The formation of the nervous system commences during the early stages of embryonic development. Initially, simple tissue transforms into a neural tube, extending from the head to the tailbone. As development progresses, this neural tube differentiates into distinct regions, ultimately giving rise to the spinal cord and brain.

Three Main Brain Divisions: By approximately 25 days into embryonic development, three principal divisions of the brain become discernible. These divisions are:

Hindbrain

Midbrain

Forebrain

Associated with basic life functions such as breathing and heart rate.

Plays a role in sensory processing and motor control.

Responsible for higher cognitive functions, including thinking, reasoning, and emotional responses.

The Nervous System: The nervous system serves as the body’s communication network, comprising all the body’s nerve cells or neurons. It plays a crucial role in transmitting information throughout the body, enabling coordination and response to external stimuli. Central Nervous System (CNS): The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is the core control center for the body, responsible for processing information, decision-making, and sending signals to the peripheral nervous system. Peripheral Nervous System: The peripheral nervous system encompasses the network of nerves that extends throughout the body, branching out from the central nervous system. It is responsible for transmitting sensory information to the CNS and carrying out motor responses. Understanding of the nervous system’s development and function has profound implications for fields such as neuroscience, medicine, and psychology. The intricate workings of the nervous system are central to our ability to perceive, interact with our environment, and engage in complex cognitive processes. B. The Central Nervous System (CNS) The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord , which are protected by the skull and vertebral column, respectively. Communication within the CNS occurs through electrical impulses sent along neurons , which connect to each other at junctions called synapses .

Chapter3: Genetics, Prenatal Development, and Childbirth

Overview

Now that you have learned a bit about the history, research, and ethical portions of developmental psychology, it is now time to explore genetics, prenatal development, and childbirth. This is the beginning of the developmental cycle. There will be information pertaining to genetic diseases that may affect development, including the formation of the egg and its progression into a fetus. Childbirth is later

discussed in this chapter. Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Understand basic concepts of genetics and the genetic code. ● Explain genetic and chromosomal abnormalities. ● Describe the different stages of prenatal development.

● Define and understand what teratogens are. ● Explain the steps of the birthing process. A. Concepts of Genetics Gametes are where we start with development. They are also considered sex cells. Females have egg gametes, and males have sperm gametes. When the male and female gametes come together, this material creates a zygote . Zygotes divide from one cell into two cells, two cells into four cells, etc.

All cells contain chromosomes, and chromosomes are located in the nucleus. Body cells, called somatic cells , have 23 pairs of chromosomes, totaling 46 chromosomes in the human body. Half of the 46 chromosomes come from the mother, and the other half come from the father. Genetic information is carried by DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid . All DNA cells contain a sugar called deoxyribose, a group of phosphates, and four different bases. The first base is adenine , followed by

thymine , guanine , and cytosine . These four bases are put into pairs. Adenine is paired up with thymine, while guanine is paired with cytosine. Hereditary information has a basic unit called a gene . Genes are what chromosomes are made up of. They are the individual segments of chromosomes. Individuals are known to have around 100,000 genes. All genes are different, have specific DNA, and carry genetic codes from the parent to the child. The 23 rd chromosome is called the sex chromosome . Females have two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X and one Y chromosome. Two types of components make up a person’s genetic makeup. One is called the genotype , and the other is called the phenotype . The genotype makes up the genetic makeup, which includes 2 types of genes. The phenotype component is considered the observable trait that can be seen, including eye color, hair color, and a person’s height. Some genes are present in the genotype that are not observable. These unexpressed genes are called carriers . The unexpressed genes can be passed on to other children. Genes that interact with one another are called the gene-gene interaction , and they can also interact with their environment, called the gene-environment interaction . Let’s look at the gene-gene interactions: Gene-Gene Interaction ● Additive: This shows the contribution of multiple genes ○ Example : A tall woman and a short man have a child of medium height. ● Dominant-Recessive: Genes known to be non-additive, meaning they are one or another. ○ Example: A person with a dominant gene for brown eyes can be a carrier for blue eyes. Brown eyes are typically shown since they are the dominant gene. ● Incomplete Dominance: This phenotype is not entirely controlled by the genotype. ○ Example: Some red flowers and white flowers may produce pink flowers in a variety of pink hues. ● X-Linked Genes: Genes that are on the X chromosome can be dominant or recessive and happen to be more common in men. ● Dominant Genes: Traits/Genes that are always expressed. ● Recessive Genes: Traits/genes that are not expressed.

○ Example: Baldness in men is carried on the X chromosome. ● Polygenic traits: Traits influenced by more than one gene. ○ Example: Height, skin color

Chapter4: Infancy and Toddlerhood

Overview

In this chapter, we will be looking at the physical, cognitive, and social development of infants and toddlers. We will explore the different development categories throughout a person’s life . Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Describe the different stages of infant physical development. ● Understand the development of the various reflexes. ● Explain what the role of nutrition plays in infant development. ● Describe the different categories of attachment regarding children and adults. A. Physical Development

Newborns are born with innate reflexes and behaviors that support early development.

Let’s look at some of the skills in the chart below:

Name of Behavior or Skills

Examples

Reflexive Behaviors

Coughing, Blinking, and Suckling

These behaviors include those that have already been programmed without having any experience with the behavior, such as crying. These are the skills that begin being learned in early infancy. Some things include rolling, reaching, and sitting up for early infancy, with self-feeding emerging in later months.

Inherited Behaviors

Motor Skills

During infancy, the cephalocaudal and proximodistal development will continue. The cephalocaudal principle is when the infant develops movements starting at the head and moving down to the feet. Infants will learn how to control head, eye, and face movements, and they usually learn this before learning how to control the arms, legs, feet, and torso. When talking about the proximodistal principle, an infant’s body develops from the center of the body and outward. Infants will learn to control their muscles first in the upper arm and then work on the lower arm, eventually learning how to control their hands and fingers.

After the fetus has been born, the nervous system will continue to develop. A type of nerve cell, the neurons will begin undergoing plenty of changes. The axons, which are neural fibers that carry messages away from one neuron to another neuron, will start growing longer. The Dendrites, the neural fibers that receive messages, will multiply. The connections between the neurons will grow much stronger as the brain develops. Interestingly, when someone is born, they have approximately one hundred billion brain cells, most of which are immature. The neural connections will allow the neural cells to become much more efficient and help process more information. This will enable a child to gain more skills. The cortex is one of the body’s last parts that fully develops. It is needed to help control complex voluntary activities like emotional regulation and decision-making. Other behaviors like defecation and urination are managed by the brainstem and spinal cord reflexes.

B. Motor Skill Development Motor development is the intricate process of acquiring and honing the abilities to maneuver and control one’s body within the surrounding environment. This developmental journey unfolds from infancy through adolescence, following a general sequence where each mastered skill becomes a foundation for the next. Although individual timelines may vary, there is a general expectation for children to acquire specific skills around the same age. Many infants will learn skills without having someone teaching them. Infants learn things through observing others. Human interaction during this period of an infant’s life is vitally critical for appropriate development. It has been found that children who have been raised by parents who held them a lot or have left them in confined spaces tend to have a slower development rate than a child who is put on the floor and allowed to explore. The children who are given the opportunity will be able to learn how to walk quicker and have better stepping reflexes. The stepping reflex is a gross motor skill, a significant body movement. Fine motor skills usually refer to small body movements.

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