Philosophy

Philosophy Study Guide

good, instead they are good only as a means to something else. Categorical imperative commands actions that are intrinsically good, not actions that are good as a means to something else. They prescribe ways of acting that all rational beings are morally required to follow. Kant focuses on the logical form or moral maxims (a maxim is a moral law). A moral action is one that a rational person can consistently universalize as a moral law applicable to all rational creatures. What determines the moral value of an action is not its content, consequences, intention, or the character of the individual acting; rather, it is whether it is logically consistent for the action to be practiced by all. Kant’s metaphysics of morals is based on the concept that humans are rational creatures and as such we are necessarily committed to the belief in logical consistency. When we universalize an action as commanded by the categorical imperative, if the result of our universalized action is logically inconsistent in the real world, then it must be morally wrong. Reason insists that we be impartial in evaluating the needs and perspective of people, and when we do this, it is apparent that as rational creatures, all people share the same intrinsic worth. Kant believed that all people possess the same intrinsic value, a value that is defined by the ability to understand their options and make autonomous choices, we should always act in a way that respects their inherent dignity as rational agents and we should never treat people instrumentally as a means to an end we want to achieve- meaning that we should not use people. Kant has an idea of a kingdom of ends in which every person is always treated as a person on intrinsic worth and that such a kingdom would be governed by laws that ensure the universal validity of all people and a harmonious community based on the unassailable rationality of the categorical imperative. Deontologists like Kant focus on the notion of duty or obligation as the measure of ethically correct conduct. For a deontologist, moral value is determined by following the moral maxims prescribed by reason. Kant believed the work of philosophy was to uncover those moral laws that are true independently of experience-a prior-therefore binding all people. Kant identified the supreme law that all rational beings are required to follow as the categorical imperative “Act as if the maxim of your action were to become by your will a universal law of nature.” An ethically enlightened person implements the categorical imperative by exercising his or her good will. 9.3 Consequences: Utilitarianism Two Greek philosophers living at the same time as Aristotle, Aristippus and Epicurus, had a radically different approach to moral life. They believed that morally enlightened actions were defined not by the moral character of the individual as Aristotle believed, or by rationally based duty as Kant believed. Aristippus and Epicurus believed that morally enlightened actions were defined by the consequences of the action believing that the morally correct course of action was the one that resulted in engendering the greatest amount of pleasure, an ethical approach known as hedonism. Hedonism is the view that pleasure is the only thing truly of value and was first identified by Aristippus, who believed that the meaning of life is pleasure, pure and simple and the purpose of life was to achieve as much intense, sensual pleasures as possible. Aristippus was a follower of Socrates and believed happiness consists in pleasure and is commonly associated with the ethical doctrine of hedonism. Epicurus advanced the view in ethics that pleasure is the one sole good and pain is the one sole bad and that one should not seek out pleasures solely but devote oneself to avoiding pain. He believed that there were higher pleasures such as intellectual pursuits and lower pleasures such as physical gratifications. In the Epicurus view, only the higher pleasures could provide optimal pleasure and peace of mind. He created a school called The Garden and invited people to stop by and socialize,

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