SAMPLE Sociology
THE ULTIMATE CREDIT-BY-EXAM STUDY GUIDE FOR: Introduction to Sociology 2 nd Edition
01/18/2024
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Contents Chapter 1: Introduction to Sociology
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A. What is Sociology?
1 3 4 4 6 7 8
B. Why is Sociology Important? C. Brief History of Sociology D. The Creation of Sociology
E. Overview of Influential Sociological Theorists
F. Defining Theory
G. The Four Major Sociological Theories / Theoretical Perspectives
H. Sociological View of Social Structure
18 20
Chapter 1: Review Questions
Chapter 2: Sociological Research
22
A. Sociological Research B. The Scientific Method
22 23 36 39 41 43 45 47 48 49 50 52 53 54 56 58 60 60 62 45 56
C. Ethnography
D. Validity and Reliability - Assessing the Quality of Research
E. Ethical Concerns in Sociological Research
Chapter 2: Review Questions
Chapter 3: Culture
A. What is Culture?
B. Cultural Analysis: Theoretical Approaches
C. Cultural Subsets
D. Perceptions of Culture E. Elements of Culture
F. Innovation: Discovery and Invention in Cultures
G. Diffusion and Globalization Chapter 3: Review Questions
Chapter 4: Society and Social Interaction
A. Types of Societies
B. Theoretical Perspectives on Society C. Social Constructions of Reality D. Status & Role within Sociology
Chapter 4: Review Questions
Chapter 5: Socialization
64
A. Theories of Self-Development
64
B. Psychological Perspectives on Self-Development
65 72 73 73 74 75 76 76 76 77 79 81 81 83 83 85 87 89 90 91 81
C. Nature vs. Nurture
D. Why Socialization Matters E. Agents of Socialization
F. Housing, Neighborhood, and Community G. Socialization Across the Life Course
H. Resocialization
I. Social Interaction Theory
J. Status Set K. Social Roles
Chapter 5: Review Questions
Chapter 6: Groups and Organization
A. Defining a Group B. Types of Groups
C. Conformity and Obedience
D. Groupthink
E. Formal Organizations
F. Max Weber: Verstehen and the Rationalization of Society
G. Bureaucracies
H. The McDonaldization of Society Chapter 6: Review Questions
Chapter 7: Deviance, Crime, and Social Control
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A. Deviance and Control B. Social Control Theory
93 94 95 96
C. Types of Crime
D. Sociological Theories on Deviance and Crime E. Fundamental Criminal Justice Models
102 102 105
F. Crime Statistics
Chapter 7: Review Questions
Chapter 8: Media and Technology
107
A. Technology Today
107 110 111 113 116
B. Global Implications of Technology and Media C. Theoretical Perspectives on Media and Technology
D. Socialization and Social Isolation
Chapter 8: Review Questions
Chapter 9: Social Stratification
118
A. What is Social Stratification?
118 120 120 123 126 126 127 128 129 131 134 136 137 138 142 143 143 145 147 147 153 155 156 158 159 161 162 166 168 169 169 170 170 172 136 147 168
B. Recent Economic Changes and Stratification in the United States
C. Social Stratification and Mobility in the United States
D. Poverty in the United States
E. Social Mobility
F. Class Traits
G. Global Stratification and Inequality
H. Issues Faced as a Result of Global Stratification
I. Global Wealth and Poverty
J. Theoretical Perspectives on Global Stratification
Chapter 9: Review Questions
Chapter 10: Race and Ethnicity
A. Racial, Ethnic, and Minority Groups B. Social Minority vs. Social Majority
C. Intersectionality, Prejudice, Discrimination, and Stereotyping
D. African Americans in the United States
E. Culture of Prejudice
F. Intergroup Relations: Interaction of Social Minority and Majority Groups
Chapter 10: Review Questions
Chapter 11: Gender, Sex, and Sexuality
A. Defining SOGIE B. Sex and Gender C. Sex and Sexuality
D. Gender Roles and Gender Stereotypes
E. Sexism
F. Sexual Harassment
G. Patriarchy vs. Matriarchy
H. Sexual Viewpoints
I. Sociological Perspectives on Gender
Chapter 11: Review Questions
Chapter 12: Aging and the Elderly
A. Gerontology
B. Studying the Aging Populations
C. Aging Around the World
D. The Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
E. The Graying of the United States
F. The Process of Aging
G. Death and Dying
174 176 177 179
H. Challenges Facing the Elderly I. Theoretical Perspectives on Aging Chapter 12: Review Questions
Chapter 13: Marriage and Family
181
A. Family
181 183 184 185 186 187 188 191 193 194 196 196 197 200 201 203 204 204 205 208 209 211 213 215 217 217 218 220 193 203 213
B. Marriage and Family
C. Residency and Lines of Descent
D. Family Life Course E. Stages of Family Life
F. Traditional vs. Non-Traditional Family
G. Challenges Families Face Chapter 13: Review Questions
Chapter 14: Religion
A. Key Concepts of Religion
B. Theoretical Perspectives of Religion C. Types of Religious Organizations
D. Types of Religious Views E. The World’s Religions
F. Secularization
Chapter 14: Review Questions
Chapter 15: Education
A. Education Around the World B. Formal and Informal Education
C. Access to Education D. Issues in Education E. Classroom Issues F. Functions of School
Chapter 15: Review Questions
Chapter 16: Government and Politics
A. Power and Authority B. Forms of Government
C. Politics in the United States
D. Political Parties
E. Social Power Theories
Chapter 16: Review Questions
Chapter 17: Work and the Economy
222
A. Theoretical Perspectives on the Economy
222
B. Economic Systems C. The Modern Economy
223 226 228 229 229 230 232 233 234 235 238 239 240 241 241 242 243 246 247 248 250 252 252 256 258 263 265 268 237 252
D. Labor Market in the United States
E. Convergence Theory
F. Economic Conditions in Recent Years G. Globalization and the Economy H. Work in the United States I. Wage Gap in the United States J. Unemployment in the United States
Chapter 17: Review Questions
Chapter 18: Healthcare and Medicine
A. Cultural Meaning of Illness
B. Social Construction of the Illness Experience C. Social Construction of Medical Knowledge
D. Global Health
E. Economics and Health
F. Health Challenges in the United States G. Healthcare Issues in the United States
H. Mental Health and Disability
I. Types of Health Care
J. Theoretical Perspectives on Health and Medicine
Chapter 18: Review Questions
Chapter 19: Population, Urbanization, and the Environment
A. Demography and Population B. Population Growth C. Demographic Theories D. Rural-to-Urban Migration
E. Population Change from Aging, Death & Migration
F. Environment and Society Chapter 19: Review Questions
Chapter 20: Social Movements and Change
270
A. Crowd Behavior
270 274 276
B. Forms of Collective Behavior
C. Social Movements
D. Types of Social Movement E. Stages of Social Movement
278 278 279 280 282 286
F. Theories and Motives of Social Movements G. Theoretical Perspectives Social Movements
H. Social Change
Chapter 20: Review Questions
Appendix: Overview of Theorists and their Key Theories
288
Glossary
296
Chapter Quiz Answer Key
353
Chapter Quiz Answer Key and Explanation
356
Practice Exam
389
Practice Exam Answer Key
400
Practice Exam Answer Key and Explanation
401
Chapter 1: Introduction to Sociology Overview
In this chapter, we will provide an introduction to sociology, shed light on why it is important, and explore its brief history and the influential figures in its development. The chapter will introduceand elaborate on different sociological approaches, sociologist styles,andtheories,includingoutliningthe fourmajorsociologicaltheories.Finally,thechapterwilllookatthesociologicalviewofsocialstructure, with an additional focus on Norbert Elias’s figuration theory. Learning Objectives ● Define sociology and discuss its approaches, subfields, and types of sociologists. ● Explain why sociology is important and its history. ● Describe the influential sociological theorists and their theories. ● Summarize the theoretical paradigms and the differences between macro and micro theories. ● Discuss the four major sociological theories. ● Describe the overall sociological view of social structure. A. What is Sociology? Sociologyisan analyticalstudy oftheprocessesresponsibleforandaffectedbythebehaviorofpeople andtheirinteractionsinboth micro and macro settings.Itseekstounderstandhow socialinstitutions , culture , socialnorms ,and values shapeourlivesandexperiences,andhowtheyshapethestructureof society as a whole. With a focus on patterns of social interaction , persons, and collective behavior , sociologyexaminestherelationshipsamongindividuals, organizationalstructures ,andcommunitiesto gain insight into how societies operate and bring about change. In sociology, the term “society” refers to a group of people within a defined geographic region who interactwithoneanotherandshareacommonculture(laws,traditions,norms,andvalues).Sociology, psychology, and anthropology all deal with aspects of human behavior. ● Sociology focuses on social interaction and sociallife at a specific point in time. By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
● Psychology focuses on the way individuals think, feel,or behave. ● Anthropology focuses on the progression of human cultureover time.
Some sociologists suggest that people’s decisions are influenced by social variables. It is further suggested that these influences create societal changes ,especially within families or a community.
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Example Someindividualsfaceachoicewhenapproachingadulthoodaboutwhethertheywillcontinueto liveathomewiththeirparentsormoveintotheirownspace.Insomecultures,itiscustomaryfor young adults to continue living at home with theirparentsuntiltheygetmarried,whileinother cultures, it is customary for young adults to move out of their childhood home. Intheexampleabove,thecountry’scultureinfluenceswhereayoungadultchoosestolive.Sociologists observethebehaviorofindividualsinlargegroups,usuallythosewhobelongtothesamecommunity,to understand these cultural trends. Sociology Approaches The positivist Approach is a form of empirical study that examines the useof scientificmethods to establishevidenceofspecific socialbehaviors .Thisapproachreliesprimarilyontheuseof quantitative data as opposed to qualitative information and objective natural laws as opposed to subjective interpretations that are assumed to govern all humanbehavior. The interpretiveapproach ismoresubjectiveandfocusesonunderstandingpeoplefromahistoricaland culturalperspective.Itemphasizesdiscoveringthemeaningbehindtheunderlyingmotivationsofsocial behavior instead of attempting to explain or predict it. Some of the subfields that fall within the scope of sociology include Social Organization, Social Psychology, Social Change, Human Ecology, Population and Demographics, Applied Sociology, Sociological Methods and Research. Table 1 - 1: Subfields within sociology
Social Organization
Focuses onhow social structures, norms, and rolesshape individuals and groups.
Social Psychology
Examines how individual behavior is shaped by group dynamics & social environment.
Thetransformationofsocietiesandcommunitiesovertimeduetovariousfactors, such as technology, economics, culture, and migration. The study of human-environment relationships, including how populations and cultures adapt to environmental changes.
Social Change
Human Ecology
Population & Demographics
Studies the size, composition, and dynamics of populations.
The application of sociological theory & methods to research & practice in a wide variety of fields, including healthcare, education, business, & the criminal justice system. The branch of sociology dedicated to developing & applying techniques to generate, analyze & interpret social data.
Applied Sociology
Sociological Methods & Research
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Types of Sociology Depending on their interests sociologists may pursue three distinct disciplines: clinical sociology , foundational sociology , or applied sociology . Eachdiscipline will offer a unique perspective. Table 2 - 1: Three sociological disciplines Clinical Sociology Foundational Sociology Applied Sociology
Study of foundational theories & principles that guide the field such as symbolic interactionism, functionalism, & structuralism. Academic discipline that seeks to understand how different social phenomena are shaped by the underlying structure of societies.
Application of sociological concepts, theories & research findings to improve the lives of people in a variety of contexts. Involves analyzing, designing, evaluating & implementing interventions in areas such as health, education, public policy, & development.
Focuses on the impact of social relationships between individuals & groups. It uses the big-picture concept of sociology to directly help people who struggle with social issues. Incorporates components of clinical psychology, public health, medical sociology & other disciplines.
B. Why is Sociology Important? Sociologyprovidesuswiththeknowledgeandtoolstoexaminetheworldweliveincritically.Ithelpsus gainadeeperunderstandingofhowourfamilies,communities,countries,andtheworldfunctionaswell asthevarious socialissues thataffectus.Thisunderstandingallowsustomakeinformeddecisionsand develop strategies to create positive change. Table3-1:Howsociologyisaffectedbypublicpolicies,socialchanges,andpersonal growth
Public Policy
Social Change
Personal Growth
A specific set of laws, regulations, & programs established by governments to influence social outcomes within a population. These policies may focus on areas such as: ● Health ● Education ● Economic development ● Housing ● Criminal justice ● Public safety ● Labor & environment
The process of transformation in a society & generally involves a collective attempt by society to identify & address problems & make improvements. Typically driven by new knowledge, values, technology, & global processes. It can involve various factors, including generational shifts , structural change, demographic shifts, the emergence of mass media, economic shifts & the diffusion of new ideas.
The process whereby individuals develop their skills, knowledge & attitudes within their social & cultural environment. May take place over some time as individuals further their studies, take part in related activities & apply their understanding in new contexts.
Some examples include: ●
Thinking critically
Experiencing opportunities & challenges
●
Some examples include: ● Industrialization ● Rural-Urban ● Political change
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C. Brief History of Sociology Since ancient times, people have been captivated by the relationship between individuals and the groupstowhichtheybelong.Inthe13 th century,Chinesehistorian MaTuan-Lin wasthefirstindividual who believed that organized social dynamics were a historical development component. He wrote about this in the encyclopedia General Study of LiteracyRemains .
The next century brought IbnKhaldun (1332–1406),whomanyholdasthe world’sfirsttruesociologist.KhaldunwasborninTunisiaandiscreditedwith writing about many topics that helped set the foundations for modern sociology and economics. He provided a foundation for the social conflict theory,nomadicandsedentarylife,andpoliticaleconomies. Inaddition,he researched tribal social cohesion and power potential.
Duringthe18thcentury,knownasthe AgeofEnlightenment ,therewereseveralsociologicalthinkers, such as John Locke (1632–1704), Voltaire (1694–1778), Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679),and MaryWollstonecraft (1759–1797).WhileLocke,Voltaire,Kant,andHobbes are credited with leading discourse on society and societal issues, creating writings that they hoped would bring social reform, Wollstonecraft stands out as one of the first women in sociology. Despite receiving little support in the male-dominated academic world, she focused on studying the societal rolesandconditionsofwomen.So,inthe1970s,followingthegrowthoffeminism,Wollstonecraftwas identified as the first feminist thinker of consequence.
D. The Creation of Sociology The Industrial Revolution brought many changes during the 19th century including new types of employment. There was significant social and political turmoil with the rise of empires that exposed many people to new societies and cultures. Three major changes that spurred the development of sociology in European societies include an increaseinthenumberofcities , factories ,and democraticcultures. Thedemocratizationofsocietyled to a shift from class-based systems to a systemwithgreateremphasisonindividualrights.Moreover, sociology was developed in the mid-nineteenth century when European social observers began to use scientific methods to test their ideas based onthe following four factors:
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1. The social upheaval in Europe resulted from the Industrial Revolution. 2. The political revolutions in America and France encouragedpeopletorethinktheirideasabout social life. 3. The development of imperialism —as the Europeans conquered other nations, the interactions with different cultures influenced the “why” of cultural variations. 4. Thenaturalsciences’ successcreatedadesiretoapplyscientificmethodstofindanswersabout the social world. Comte’s Three Stages of Society & Theories of Positivism
AugusteComtewasoneofthefoundersofthestudyofsociologyin1838.Comte proposed three stages of society: Theological Stage, Metaphysical Stage, & Scientific Stage . Table 4 - 1: Comte’s three stages of society
STAGE 1 - Theological Stage
STAGE 2 - Metaphysical Stage
STAGE 3 - Scientific Stage
The start of human society & the formation of social groups . People considered gods as personally influencing everything occurring in the world, even if they didn’t directly control it.
Began around the Middle Ages in Europe (roughly around the 1300s). Individuals viewed the world & events as natural reflections of human tendencies. Believed in divine powers or gods, but saw these beings as more abstract & less directly involved in the world’s day-to-day happenings. Instead, they believed that problems in the world were due to defects in humanity.
Individuals in this stage view the world and events through the lens of scientific principles .
Believe that the laws of science regulate everything.
For example, today, it’s commonly accepted that the planets orbit around the sun.
Positivism Comtebelievedthatsociologyshouldadoptapositivistapproach. Positivism isthebeliefthatsocieties have their own scientific principles and laws, similar to those in physics or chemistry. Moreover, positivismholdsthat objectivetruths aboutsocietycanbeuncoveredthroughscientificinquiryandthat ourunderstandingofsocietyshouldbebasedon empiricalevidence .Comtebelievedthisapproachwas essential to fully understanding society and its workings. Comte’s idea of positivism is, therefore, a product of the final stage of society, the scientificstage .
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E. Overview of Influential Sociological Theorists The following table summarizes the influential theories that contributed to sociology. The specific theories or concepts are spread throughouttherelevantchapters. Pleaseseethe Appendix sectionfor more in-depth details. Table 5 - 1: Influential theories that contributed to sociology
Theorists
Famous Theories or Concepts
Key Points
Roots of Sociology
Social scientists should conduct studies of society that use the same methods as the natural sciences and identify scientific laws that govern society. Comte proposed three stages of society:
Auguste Comte “Father of Sociology”
Theory of Positivism
● Theological Stage ● Metaphysical Stage ● Scientific Stage
Individuals are not meant to serve society; a society’s purpose is to fulfill the needs of individuals living in that society. Society is like the organs in the human body, and parts of society work together to function properly. Proposes that only the powerful and rich will sustain their wealth.
Harriet Martineau’s Illustration of Political Economy
Harriet Martineau
Social Darwinism Survival of the Fittest Three Systems of Society
Herbert Spencer
Conflict Theorists
Social Conflict Theory Class Consciousness The Communist Manifesto
All history is the history of class struggle in which a group would oust an oppressive group.
Karl Marx
The Power of Elite Personal Troubles Public Issues
Upper classes of society had positions in the military, the economy, and the government, all of which exercised the most influence over others. Ability to place one’s own experiences in the larger sociopolitical context.
Charles Wright Mills
Sociological Imagination
Weberian Theory
● Bureaucracy ● Verstehen ● Anti-positivism ● The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
Society needs a more formal, impersonal, and inflexible form of organization, which is characterized by rules, legal authority, and competence.
Max Weber
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Structural-Functionalist Theorists
Each part of society serves a specific function that contributes to the proper functioning of society as a whole. Social factors influence individual behavior. Activities or institutions have clear and intended results as well as less evident and unintended ones. A theory based on empirical evidence stating that the primary cause of crime or anomie in society is the lack of opportunity to attain goals. Focused on how the mind developed during social processes. Symbols are the foundation of society; the meaning of different symbols is derived from social interactions. Internal tensions suffered by African Americans living in a predominantly white society. A person’s identity is based on how they believe others see them. Study of social interaction by comparing it to theatrical performance. People adjust their behavior to create specific impressions for their audience.
Functionalism Anomie
Emile Durkheim
Division of Labor Social Integration
Manifest and Latent Functions Dysfunctions
Robert K. Merton
Strain Theory of Deviance
Symbolic Interactionist Theories
George Herbert Mead Symbolic Interactionism
William Edward BurghardtDu Bois
Double Consciousness
Charles Horton Cooley
Looking Glass Self
Dramaturgical Analysis
Erving Goffman
Impression Management
Other Influential Theorists
As the size of the group increases, a person has less opportunity to be heard.
Georg Simmel
Dyads and Triads
A society’s survival depends on its level of technology.
Gerhard Lenski
Sociocultural Evolution
F. Defining Theory The scientific definition of a theory refers to a well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of how something works. Sociologists have developed various theories to investigate andcorroboratecertain behaviorsandconditions.Thesetheoriesarebasedoncarefulobservationsusing scientificmethods .By developing theories, sociologists can build upon existing knowledge andgeneratenew hypotheses to explain observed patterns.
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Chapter 2: Sociological Research Overview
Chapter2willexplorethevariousviews, methods ,and approaches toconductingsociologicalresearch. We will look at the role of the scientific method , various research designs and methods, types of experiments ,and dataanalysis .Additionally,wewilldelveintotheusefulnessof ethnography andwill discuss the importance of reliability and validity in sociological research. Finally, we willdiscussthe ethical concerns associated with conducting non-obtrusivesociological research. Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
● Identify and explain the three major views on sociological research. ● Explain the basic steps in the scientific method for conducting research. ● Describe different types of research designs and research methods. ● Describe the ethnographic research method and its stages. ● Define reliability and validity and list types of reliability and validity. ● Explain ethical concerns in sociological research. A. Sociological Research Three Major Views on Sociological Research
Sociologicalresearchisthe systematicinvestigation ofsocialrelationships,socialstructures,andsocial institutions. The three major approaches to sociological research are positivist , interpretivist (also calledanti-positivism), and critical . Table 9 - 2: The three approaches to sociological research
Approaches to Sociology
Defined as
Research Approach
Studies the rules that govern behavior in society through a scientific lens, using empirical data . Analyzes how society is shaped by beliefs and other external factors. Max Weber pointed out that sociologists come with a certain worldview that can shape their research .
Focuses on objective, observable quantitative data to make statements about larger social phenomena . Encourages the exploration of qualitative data through subjective experiences & values.
Positivism
Anti-positivism (interpretative)
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Emphasizes the application of social research to solve social problems & to support economic & social change. Based on the understanding that social phenomena are shaped by forces of power & inequality.
Focuses on using both quantitative & qualitative data to identify & understand the patterns of power & oppression in order to promote equality & justice in society.
Critical Sociology
Example A sociologist who wants to investigate why young, low-income people do not vote. A positivist sociologist would search for an outside factor to blame for this. Is this a result of younger, low-incomepeoplebeinglesseducatedand,hence,lesslikelytofollowelections?An interpretive sociologist wouldconsiderhowthosewhodonotvoteviewtheworldinwhichtheylive.Doesthat group of people in society not value voting? A critical sociologist would want to know how we might utilize that information to persuade that group of people tovotemore,notonlywhythey aren’t voting. B. The Scientific Method Sociologistsusethe scientificmethod tostudyhumanbehaviorandsocialphenomena,whichinvolves observation,measurement,experimentation,andhypothesisformulation.Thisapproachcanbeadapted dependingontheresearchquestionandcontext.Itisbasedoncollectingfirsthandknowledgethrough methodslikesurveys,interviews,andexperiments.Sociologiststhenusethisdatatoanswerquestions, analyze trends, and support or reject hypotheses about social variables . There are six main steps in the scientific method. 1. Formulate a specific research question. 2. Research existing sources. 3. Develop a hypothesis (testable explanation). 4. Test the hypothesis by conducting research (which may support or reject the hypothesis). 5. Draw conclusions based on the research findings. 6. Publish the research findings and make the information available to others.
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Chapter 3: Culture Overview
In this chapter, we will discuss the concept of culture and its various associated aspects, including material and non-material culture and theoretical approaches. The chapter will further explore the structural-functional, social conflict, and sociobiology theories and discuss ideal culture, real culture, ethnocentrism, and cultural relativism. Learning Objectives ● Understandthevariousdefinitionsofcultureandbeabletodifferentiatebetweenmaterialand non-material culture. ● Describe the major theoretical approaches to the study of culture, including structural-functionalism, social conflict theory, and sociobiology. ● Identify the various components of culture, such as values and beliefs, norms, symbols and languages, and rituals. ● Analyze the multifaceted concept of culture, including ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. ● Explain how innovation and diffusion contribute to the process of globalization. A. What is Culture? All human communities have culture, which includes the language used, values, beliefs, norms, and items handed down from generation to generation. Culture is universally experienced by all human communities, even though the specifics can vary from one societal group to another. Thisisbecause every society creates a set of learned, common ways to perceive and engage in the world. By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
Society vs. Culture
Society refers to a group of individuals who interact and live together in a specific geographical area, sharingsocialinstitutions,norms,andorganizations.It isacollectiveofpeoplewithestablishedstructuresand roles.
Culture, on the other hand, encompasses the shared beliefs, values, customs, traditions, language, and behaviorsofagroupwithinasociety.Itrepresentsthe unique way of life and the shared identity of a particular group of people.
In summary, society is the group of people, while culture is the shared identity and way of life that characterizes that group. Society provides the structure, while culture provides the meaning and practices within that structure. Materialculture and nonmaterialculture arethetwosubcategoriesof culture.
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Table 20 - 3: Material culture and nonmaterial culture
Culture Subcategory
Description
Visual Example
Objects & items in a culture that surround people. Includes architecture, consumption, creation, & trade of different objects, including but not limited to food, clothing & art. Consists of tangible objects that can be seen and handled .
Material Culture
Thoughts, ideas, beliefs, & norms within a culture . Consists of abstract ideas that are experienced within the culture’s behaviors & beliefs, such as traditions, mannerisms, values, and language.
Nonmaterial Culture
Cultural universals are patterns or characteristics shared by all societies. Some activities, such as courtship, marriage, funerals, games, and family units, are universal among cultures and people. For example, family units worldwide typically consist of parents and childrenregardlessofthecountryor culture.Ofcourse,somemilddifferencesoccurwithinculturaluniversals.Forinstance,inAsiancultures, itiscommontofindmanygenerationslivinginthesamehousehold;parents,grandparents,andchildren will all live in the same home. In theUnitedStates,itiscustomaryforchildrentoleavetheirparents’ homes, find their own place to live, get married, have a job, and start a family. Although many human activities are universal, there is no universally accepted way of doing them. Anthropologist George Murdock believed that cultural universals were based on the need for human survival, concluding that all social groups have ritualsrelatedtocourting,cooking,marriage,funerals, games, legislation, music, incest taboos, and potty training. Even so,specificcustomsdifferfromone grouptoanother.Forexample,whilethehumanactivityofdisposingofthedeadisuniversal,theexact method of doing so is decidedly not universal.
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Chapter 4: Society and Social Interaction
Overview
This chapter explores the various typesofsocieties,aswellasthetheoreticalperspectivesofsociety, including Emile Durkheim’s functionalism, Karl Marx’s conflict theory, and Max Weber’s symbolic interactionism. It also looksatsocialconstructionsofrealityandtheconceptofstatusandrolewithin sociologicalcontexts.Thesetopicshelptoexplainhowsociologicalprinciplesshapeourunderstanding of the world and influence our behaviorand interactions. Learning Objectives ● Discuss the different types of societies and how they interact with one another. ● Explain the various theories of society and its structure, such as Durkheim’s functionalism, Marx’s conflict theory, and Weber’s symbolic interactionism. ● Understand how social constructions of reality shape and influence our interactions with others. ● Describe and analyze the different statuses and roles within society and how theycanshape individual actions and responses. A. Types of Societies Sociologist Gerhard Lenski defined society in terms of technological complexity. As discussed in Chapter3,whensocietyadvances,theuseoftechnologyadvancesaswell.Therearethreemaintypes of society, which include a variety of forms within each type— early (hunter-gatherer and pastoral societies), developing (horticultural, agricultural, or feudal societies), and advanced (industrial and post-industrial societies). Table 23 - 4: Types of societies By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
Pre-Industrial These societies came before the evolution of large machinery to help with mass production.
● Existed since the beginning of human life. ● Mentypicallyhuntlargegameforfood,whilewomenandchildrengatheredible plants; nomadic and strongly dependent on the environment.
Hunter-gatherers
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● Began around 12,000 years ago. ● Semi-sedentary : they move less frequently comparedto hunter-gatherers. ● Animal herders who live off of the resources derivedfrom their animals. ● Do small-scale trading and selling with other groups. ● Example: Maasai villagers.
Pastoral societies
● Began between 10,000 and 12,000 years ago. ● The life cycleofplantsandeaseofcultivationservedasthefoundationforthe entire society. ● Used simple hand tools and did small-scale farming.
Horticultural Societies
● Began about 8500 years ago. ● Larger populations of people. ● Sedentary and utilizes advanced technology, such as fertilizer and irrigation systems for large-scale farming. ● Began in the 8th century. ● Social structure based around land ownership, ● Powerdistributedthroughacomplexnetworkofloyalties&obligationsbetween a lord & their vassals.
Agricultural
Feudal Society
● An example of a feudal society is that of Medieval Europe. This era was characterized by a strict social hierarchy, with the monarch at the top and nobles, knights, peasants, and serfs below. Severalhundredyearswouldpass before the Industrial Revolution would bring an end to the feudal system. Industrial ● Began with the Industrial Revolution (1780s-1850s), prioritized the employment of both mechanical & human labor in the mass production of goods. ● Characterizedbyacentralizedworkplace,economicinterdependence,formaleducation,andcomplexsocial systems where people shifted from the agricultural way of life to working in factories.
Post-Industrial Society
● Also called digital societiescenteredontheproductionofservices,goods,and information. ● Even though post-industrial cultures continue to use industrial methods & produce goods, they have shiftedtheirattentiontoprovidingservices(suchas electrical repair or medical operations).
Information societies
Since Lenski’s original work, the postmodern society —a culture obsessed with consumer goods and media images—emerged in the latter 1970s. It uses technology extensively and also has emerging cultural groups and social interaction patterns.
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