Human Growth and Development

First page Table of contents 1 Next page Last page

THE ULTIMATE CREDIT-BY-EXAM STUDY GUIDE FOR: Human Growth and Development 1 st Edition

02/28/2025

Acknowledgments We would like to thank the authors for their patience, support, and expertise in contributing to this study guide; and our editors for their invaluable efforts in reading and editing the text. We would also like to thank those at Achieve Test Prep whose hard work and dedication to fulfilling this project did not go unnoticed. Lastly, we would like to thank the Achieve Test Prep students who have contributed to the growth of these materials over the years.

This study guide is subject to copyright

Copyright © 2025 by Achieve All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever without the express written permission of the publisher except for the use of brief quotations in a book review.

Printed in the United States of America

First Printing, 2025

Achieve PO Box 10188 #29831 Newark, NJ 07101-3188 Tel: 888.900.8380 Visit the Achieve website at http://www.achievetestprep.com/student for more information.

Contents Chapter 1: Foundations of Development

A. The Basics

2 3 4 5

B. Principles of Development C. Domains of Development D. Individual Learning Theories

E. Stage-Based Theories F. Contextual Theories

10 20 24 32

G. Research Strategies & Methodologies

Chapter 1: Review Questions

Chapter 2: Building Blocks of Development

A. Foundations of Biological Development

34 39 45 52 58 64 66 71 73 75 80 83 66

B. Prenatal and Early Influences

C. Growth and Maturation D. Regulatory Systems

E. Perceptual Development Throughout the Lifespan

Chapter 2: Review Questions

Chapter 3: Cognitive and Social Domains

A. Core Cognitive Processes B. Development and Learning

C. Individual Differences and Influences

D. Language Development

E. Intelligence Throughout the Lifespan F. Social Development Throughout the Lifespan

Chapter 3: Review Questions

100

Chapter 4: Contextual Influences

102

A. Family, Home, and Society Throughout the Lifespan

102 105 108 112 116 118 119 120 122

B. Broader Contextual Influences

C. Death and Dying

D. Foundations of Learning and Development

E. Role Transitions

F. Preschool Care, Day Care, and Elder Care

G. Retirement

H. Intervention and Support Programs

Chapter 4: Review Questions

Chapter 5: Individual Di erences

124

A. Theoretical Perspectives of Personality and Emotion

124 129 136 139 142 142 147 149 152 154 166 166 167

B. Emotional Foundations

C. Personality

D. Early-Onset Disorders

E. Diagnosing Mental Disorders F. Internalizing Disorders G. Externalizing Disorders H. Other Considerations Chapter 5: Review Questions

Practice Exam

Answer Keys

Chapter Review Questions Practice Exam Answer Key

Answer Keys and Rationale

168

Chapter Review Questions Rationale

168 175

Practice Exam Rationale

Glossary

181

Chapter 1: Foundations of Development Overview

This chapter establishes the foundations for understanding human development across the lifespan. We delve into various theoretical perspectives that inform our understanding of learning, including individual learning theories that explain how knowledge is acquired, stage-based theories that chart predictable stages of development, and contextual theories that emphasize how one’s environment shapes growth. Additionally, this chapter will explore strategies and methodologies for researching development, especially research designs and data collection methods Learning Objectives ● Describe individual learning theories, stage-based theories, and contextual theories about human development. ● Discuss the strengths and limitations of different theoretical perspectives on human development. ● Explain the role that research designs, data collection methods, and challenges of causal inference play in studying development. ● Identify appropriate research methods for investigating specific developmental questions. ● Apply your understanding of theories and methodologies to analyze real-world examples of development. A. The Basics The understanding of psychological development has evolved significantly over time. Early psychological theories suggested that development primarily occurred during childhood and adolescence, with less focus on later stages of life. However, modern research shows that development is a lifelong process, extending from birth through to old age, and that various aspects of development (cognitive, emotional, social, etc.) continue to evolve throughout the lifespan. Lifespan development means all the changes people go through in their body, mind, emotions, and social life, from birth to death. These changes are shaped by biology, culture, environment, and life experiences. At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

Terms to be familiar with:

● Lifespan is the time from birth to death. ● Maximum Lifespan is the longest time a species can live. For humans, it’s around 120 years. ● Average Lifespan is the average age people in a population are expected to live. It varies based on gender, culture, and geography. On average, women tend to live longer than men. ● Life Expectancy is how long a person is likely to live, based on their health, lifestyle, access to healthcare, and environment. ● Longevity is a long duration of an individual lifespan.

Stage

Age Range

Prenatal

Conception - Birth

Infancy

Birth – 2 years

Early Childhood

2 – 5 years

Middle Childhood

6 – 11 years

Adolescence

12 – 18 years

Early Adulthood

19 – 34 years

Middle Adulthood

35 – 64 years

Late Adulthood

65 years and older

One thing not included in the table is death and dying. Death can occur at any age, whether from old age or diseases like cancer. The stages of life are general guidelines, but the timing and reasons for death are different for everyone. Life expectancy has varied significantly throughout history and across different regions of the world. Factors such as advances in healthcare, nutrition, sanitation, and public health measures have played a crucial role in shaping life expectancy over time.

Life Expectancy Through History Prehistoric Times: Life expectancy was low in prehistoric and ancient times. Many people died during infancy or childhood due to infectious diseases and malnutrition. It is estimated that the average life expectancy during these periods was often below 30 years. Middle Ages and Renaissance: Life expectancy increased slightly during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It typically ranged from 30 to 40 years, depending on social class, region, and access to resources. 18 th and 19 th Centuries: Life expectancy began to improve in some parts of the world, particularly in Western Europe and North America. The average life expectancy during this time ranged from the mid-30s to the mid-40s due to better living conditions. 20 th Century: Advances in healthcare, vaccines, sanitation, and nutrition raised the global average life expectancy to 50 to 60 years. 21 st Century: By the early 2000s, the global average life expectancy had reached over 70 years; in many developed countries, it exceeded 80 years. However, large differences still exist between countries due to variations in healthcare systems and socio-economic conditions. B. Principles of Development Developmental psychology explains how people grow, change, and adapt throughout life. These principles highlight the complexity of human development and underscore the interplay between biology, environment, and individual choices. Some of the key principles of development are: ● Development is Lifelong: Development is a continuous process that happens from conception to old age, with growth and change at every stage. ● Development is Multidimensional: Includes physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes that interact and influence each other. ● Development is Multidirectional: Growth may occur in one area while decline happens in another. For example, physical strength may decrease, but wisdom may grow. ● Development is Contextual: Family, culture, and socioeconomic status all shape development. ● Development is Plastic: Plasticity is the ability to change or adapt to new experiences and circumstances throughout life, including brain adaptability. ● Development is Influenced by Heredity and Environment: Genetic factors and environmental influences (nature and nurture) interact to shape development. ● Development is Individual and Cumulative: Each person’s growth is unique, and past experiences build on one another over time. ● Development is Multicultural: Cultural contexts influence development, as values and practices vary across societies, shaping cognitive, emotional, and social growth.

Theorists differ on whether development is continuous or discontinuous . Some believe that development is continuous - a gradual, ongoing process where quantitative changes occur incrementally over time. Example: A child’s vocabulary growth is continuous, with words being added steadily over time. Others believe development happens in stages . These stages are distinct with its own characteristics, tasks, and milestones. Changes are abrupt and transformational rather than gradual hence called discontinuous development. Example: Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, such as moving from the preoperational to the concrete operational stage. Still others view development as happening in overlapping stages. Development isn’t always clear-cut. For example, a child might use both simple and complex thinking depending on the situation. C. Domains of Development Developmental psychology studies three main areas: physical and social growth ( biosocial ), thinking and learning ( cognitive ), and emotions and relationships ( psychosocial ). Biosocial Domain Biosocial domain focuses on the interplay between biological and social factors in development: ● Biological Development includes physical growth and maturation of the brain, body, and nervous system. ● Social Influences encompasses the impact of family, culture, socioeconomic status, and other social factors on development. Example: A researcher might study how a child's nutrition (biological) is influenced by family income and access to healthy foods (social factors). This can impact the child's physical growth (biological) and cognitive development (e.g., learning ability). Key Concepts in the Biosocial Domain: ● Potential Development: The maximum growth a child could achieve under ideal conditions. ● Actual Development: The child's current level of growth, influenced by various factors. Cognitive Domain Focuses on mental processes such as thinking , learning , problem-solving , perception , and language development. Researchers in this domain ask questions like: ● How do children acquire language? ● How does perception change throughout development Psychosocial Domain Explores the interaction between psychological processes ( personality, emotions ) and social factors ( relationships, societal influences ) throughout a person's life. Researchers in this domain might ask: ● How do individuals develop emotions and express them throughout life? ● How do people interact with their social environment?

D. Individual Learning Theories Individual learning theories explore how people acquire knowledge and skills through interactions with their environment, providing a foundation for understanding social, cognitive, and biological influences on development. Evolutionary Theory Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution transformed how we understand life. It explains that species evolve over generations through the principles of variation, inheritance, and selection: Variation: Individuals in a population differ in their traits and behaviors. Inheritance: Some of these traits are passed to offspring. diverse behaviors, and the emergence of new species. For example , Darwin's observations of the Galapagos finches revealed that their beak shapes evolved uniquely on each island, adapting to the specific types of food available in their environments. Natural selection favors traits that improve survival and reproduction . This applies to behavior and cognition as well—ancestors with cognitive skills for finding food, avoiding predators, and cooperating were more likely to survive and pass on their genes. Natural selection also applies to behavior and cognition. Ancestors who developed cognitive skills for survival (e.g., finding food, avoiding predators) were more likely to reproduce. Over time, these abilities evolved psychological mechanisms (EPMs) , such as detecting danger or forming social bonds, which still influence behavior today. Richard Dawkins’ Selfish Gene Theory (1976) expanded on Darwin’s work. He argued that genes drive evolution by promoting behaviors that increase their chances of survival and replication. For example: ● Kin Selection: Helping relatives survive even at a personal cost ensures shared genes are passed on. Worker bees risk their lives to protect the hive, even though they don’t reproduce. Selection: Traits that improve survival and reproduction are favored by the environment, gradually shaping the species. This process, known as natural selection , explains adaptations like complex organs,

Human development can also be viewed through evolutionary adaptations:

● Infancy: Crying and reflexes like rooting promote bonding and ensure survival. ● Childhood: Longer childhoods in humans allow for brain development and learning complex social and cultural skills.

● Adolescence: Risk-taking and social exploration help teens develop independence and prepare for adult roles. Biological Theory The biological perspective focuses on how genetics and the environment interact to shape development, especially during critical growth periods. ● Genes: These are the basic units of heredity, made of DNA, which contain instructions for building and maintaining the body. ● Nature vs. Nurture: This debate questions whether traits are determined by genetics (nature) or upbringing and environment (nurture). Today, researchers agree that both interact to influence development. For example: ＞ Genes may increase the likelihood of anxiety, but the environment (e.g., parenting style) shapes how it’s expressed. Epigenetics studies how environmental factors like nutrition or stress affect gene activity without changing the DNA itself. For example: ● Early trauma can trigger epigenetic changes that increase the risk of depression later in life. ● Sociable children may seek out interactions, reinforcing social skills, which then further influence their environment. The interaction of genetics and environment is central to understanding how people grow and adapt. Behavioral Theory John B. Watson introduced behaviorism , arguing that psychology should focus on observable behaviors rather than unobservable thoughts. This approach was expanded by B.F. Skinner and others, who studied how behavior is learned through interactions with the environment.

Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is a learning method discovered by Ivan Pavlov . His experiment demonstrated how a neutral stimulus can become associated with a natural response through repeated pairings. Pavlov noticed that dogs salivated when presented with food (an unconditioned stimulus , or UCS) — a natural response called the unconditioned response (UCR). Pavlov repeatedly paired a neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) with the presentation of food. Initially, the bell alone did not elicit salivation. After several pairings, the dogs began to salivate upon hearing the bell, even when no food was presented. The bell had become a conditioned stimulus (CS), and the salivation in response to the bell was now a conditioned response (CR). Here's a breakdown of the experiment: ● Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Food (naturally triggers salivation) ● Unconditioned Response (UCR): Salivation (reflexive response to food) ● Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Bell (initially a neutral stimulus) ● Conditioned Response (CR): Salivation (learned response to the bell Little Albert Experiment

The Little Albert experiment, conducted by John B. Watson, is a well-known but ethically controversial example of classical conditioning on humans. The experiment involved conditioning a young boy (Albert) to fear a white rat (originally a neutral stimulus evoking no fear whatsoever) by making a loud noise whenever the white rat was present. ● UCS: Loud noise (naturally causes fear) ● UCR: Fear/crying (natural response to loud noise) ● CS: White rat (previously a neutral stimulus associated with no fear) ● CR: Fear/crying (learned response to the white rat) Albert’s fear also generalized to similar objects (e.g., white beards), demonstrating stimulus generalization . Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus (e.g., the white rat) is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., the loud noise), leading to a gradual weakening of the conditioned response.

Applications:

● Classical conditioning works well for learning emotional responses and reflexive behaviors. ● However, it is less effective for teaching complex behaviors, which are better explained by operant conditioning.

Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner, a key behaviorist, developed operant conditioning, which focuses on how consequences shape behavior. Behaviors are strengthened by reinforcement and weakened by punishment. ● Reinforcement increases a behavior: ＞ Positive reinforcement: Adding something pleasant to encourage behavior (e.g., offering a movie outing for cleaning a room). ＞ Negative reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant to encourage behavior (e.g., reducing chores after the room is cleaned). ● Punishment decreases a behavior: ＞ Positive punishment: Adding something unpleasant to reduce behavior (e.g., assigning extra chores for not cleaning the room). ＞ Negative punishment: Taking away something enjoyable to reduce behavior (e.g., removing privileges for not cleaning). Example: To encourage a teenager to clean their room, positive or negative reinforcement works better than punishment for promoting consistent behavior. Punishment may stop undesired behavior temporarily but doesn’t effectively build positive habits.

The following table outlines four main schedules of reinforcement:

Schedule

Pros

Cons

Continuous: every instance of the desired behavior is reinforced. Fixed Ratio: reinforcement is given after a set number of desired behaviors. Variable Ratio: reinforcement is given after a random number of desired behaviors. Variable Interval: reinforcement is given after a random amount of time following a desired behavior.

Most effective for initial learning of new behaviors.

Reinforced behaviors may quickly fade once reinforcement stops, making them difficult to maintain long term. Not sustainable long-term; responses may decrease or stop if reinforcement isn't immediate. Unpredictable timing of reinforcement can be frustrating.

Produces a rapid response rate for the desired behavior.

Relatively easy to maintain, promoting high and consistent response rates.

Easy to maintain long term, but produces a steady, low response rate.

Behaviors may not be as strong initially compared to continuous reinforcement.

Humanistic Theory

Abraham Maslow emphasized the importance of intrinsic motivation—the internal drive to perform actions because they are fulfilling or meaningful. For example: ● Intrinsic Motivation: Exercising for the sense of accomplishment or personal satisfaction. ● Extrinsic Motivation: Working for a paycheck even if the job itself isn’t enjoyable. Maslow argued that intrinsic motivation is essential for healthy development and criticized the behaviorist focus on punishments and rewards. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a model that describes the different levels of motivation that drive human behavior. It is often shown as a pyramid, with the following categories: ● Physiological Needs: Food, water, shelter—essential for survival. ● Safety Needs: Security, stability, and freedom from fear. ● Social Needs: Relationships, love, and connection with others. ● When these needs are unmet, people feel a strong sense of deficiency (e.g., hunger, loneliness). 2. Growth Needs (Higher-Level Needs): 1. Deficiency Needs (Basic Needs):

● Aesthetic and Cognitive Needs: The desire for beauty, creativity, and knowledge. ● Self-Actualization: Achieving personal goals and realizing one’s potential.

Carl Rogers, another key humanistic psychologist, believed in everyone’s potential for positive growth. He introduced the concept of unconditional positive regard , which means accepting and valuing someone as worthy of love regardless of their behavior. For example: ● A therapist offering unconditional support helps individuals grow and overcome challenges. ● Parents showing unconditional love create a secure environment for children to develop confidence. E. Stage-Based Theories Stage-based theories suggest that development occurs in distinct, sequential stages, each representing a different way of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Cognitive Development Theories Cognitive development theories explore how people think, reason, and solve problems over time. Unlike learning theories, which focus on external influences (e.g., rewards and punishments), cognitive development theories examine internal mental processes and how understanding evolves throughout life. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget proposed that children move through four stages of cognitive development, going from infants who are only capable of simple sensations and movements to adolescents and adults who can execute complex tasks of abstract reasoning.

Stage 1: Sensorimotor

Key Achievement

Object permanence: Understanding objects exist even when unseen (develops around 8 months). Perceptual constancy: Recognizing objects maintain their shape and size despite the distance.

Infants learn through reflexes, the senses, and movements. Schemas: Mental models of the world, to learn and adapt. These schemas are modified through: ● Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemas. ● Accommodation: Adjusting schemas to fit new information.

Piaget identified six sub-stages within the Sensorimotor Stage of cognitive development. These sub-stages highlight how infants progress from simple reflexes to forming mental representations, with deferred imitation (the ability to recall and copy behavior later) appearing in the final stage. 1. Reflex Acts (0–1 Month):

● Newborns respond automatically to external stimuli using reflexes. ● Example: A baby instinctively sucks when something touches their lips.

2. Primary Circular Reactions (1–4 Months): ● Infants repeat actions that feel good or are enjoyable, focusing on their own body. ● Example: Sucking their thumb, kicking their legs, or wiggling their fingers. 3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4–8 Months): ● Infants expand their actions to include objects around them. ● Example: Shaking a rattle to hear the sound or grabbing toys to explore. 4. Coordinating Secondary Schemes (8–12 Months): ● Babies begin to combine actions to achieve specific goals using learned behaviors. ● Example: Knocking over an obstacle to retrieve a toy hidden behind it. 5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12–18 Months): ● Infants engage in trial-and-error experiments to see what happens. ● Example: Dropping objects from different heights to get attention or test the results. 6. Early Representational Thought (18–24 Months): ● Toddlers develop the ability to form mental representations and imitate actions after a delay ( deferred imitation ). ● Example: Watching an adult brush their hair and later mimicking the action on their own.

Stage 2: Preoperational

Key Achievements

Children use symbols to communicate ( semiotic function) and use transductive reasoning (illogical thinking). Egocentrism: Difficulty seeing the world from another's perspective (may develop empathy depending on experiences). Struggle with logical thinking and conservation (amount of substance stays the same regardless of shape).

Improved language skills, memory, and categorization skills.

Stages 3 and 4

Key Achievements

Stage 3: Concrete Preoperational Children can perform mental operations on concrete objects. Logical reasoning: Solve problems in a step-by-step manner.

Understands conservation: Quantity remains constant despite changes in shape or form. Understanding of reversibility: Awareness that actions can be reversed. Ex. A child folds a piece of paper into a small square and then unfolds it back to its original shape. They recognize that the process can be reversed, and the paper hasn’t changed fundamentally. Classification: Grouping objects based on similar characteristics. Seriation: Ordering objects along a specific dimension (e.g., size, weight). As children become more aware of their thinking, they develop metacognition —the ability to reflect on their thoughts and understand others' ideas.

Stage 4: Formal Operational Adolescents can think abstractly and hypothetically.

Criticisms of Piaget's Stages ● Underestimated preschoolers' abilities: Research suggests preschoolers are more capable than Piaget thought. ● Overestimated formal operational thought: Not everyone fully develops formal operations and Piaget was thought to have overestimated the abilities of adolescents. ● Stage transitions: Movement through stages may not be as linear as Piaget proposed. ● Cultural bias: Piaget's theories may not universally apply across all cultures. Lev Vygotsky’s Cognitive Theory Lev Vygotsky, a key cognitive theorist, emphasized the social nature of learning . He believed that language and social interaction are essential for cognitive development. Key Concepts: 1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): ● The ZPD is the gap between what a child can do on their own and what they can do with help from a more knowledgeable person (e.g., an adult or peer). ● Scaffolding: Temporary support, such as explanations or hints, helps children complete tasks just beyond their independent ability. Over time, this support is removed as the child becomes more skilled. ● Example: A child can read simple books alone but struggles with more complex ones. With an adult’s help (e.g., reading together, explaining words), the child gradually learns to read harder books independently. 2. Role of Language: ● Language is a critical tool for thinking and learning. It helps children organize information, solve problems, and remember strategies (e.g., using self-talk or mnemonic devices ). 3. Social Interaction: ● Vygotsky believed that children learn best through collaboration with others, especially in cultural and social contexts that provide opportunities for guided learning. *Stage: Post-Formal Operational This was added later to Piaget's original theory, describing a stage of nuanced and relativistic thinking. It involves considering multiple perspectives simultaneously and acknowledging the complexities of the world, recognizing that solutions are often not black-and-white but context-dependent.

Schaie's Model of Cognitive Development Klaus Warner Schaie proposed a model that explores how cognitive abilities evolve throughout adulthood. His framework focuses on how adults use their thinking skills in real-world contexts, reflecting the changing priorities and demands of different life stages. ● Emphasis: Unlike Piaget, Schaie’s model focuses on adulthood and the practical application of cognitive skills to solve everyday problems. ● Stages: Schaie identified stages in adult cognitive development, showing how thinking shifts based on goals, responsibilities, and life experiences.

Stage

Focus

Characteristics

Acquisitive (Childhood and Adolescence) Achieving (Young Adulthood)

To gain knowledge and skills.

It focuses on acquiring information and skills for future use, with children and adolescents dedicated to learning about the world. Young adults use cognitive skills to achieve personal and professional goals, like finishing education, starting a career, and forming relationships, with decision-making becoming more goal-oriented and practical. Middle-aged adults apply cognitive skills to manage family, work, and community responsibilities, balancing multiple roles and addressing others' needs. Involves managing & directing complex organizations or communities. It requires advanced cognitive skills for strategic planning, problem-solving & decision-making. Individuals focus on meaningful tasks, directing cognitive efforts towards activities that reflect their values and interests, often seeking to simplify life. May focus on tasks to ensure their legacy, like writing memoirs, creating wills, and sharing wisdom, reflecting on life achievements and contributions.

Applying knowledge to achieve long-term goals.

Responsible (Middle Adulthood)

Managing complex responsibilities.

Executive (Middle to Late Adulthood)

Overseeing complex systems.

Reintegrative (Late Adulthood)

Reflecting on life and simplifying tasks.

Legacy-Creating (Advanced Old Age)

Creating a legacy and making sense of life.

Psychodynamic Theory Psychodynamic theory was developed by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis , a method for studying and treating unconscious thoughts and emotions. The theory explains human behavior and personality as being influenced by the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, and psychological drives. It is also referred to as psychoanalytic theory. Freud’s Structure of Personality Freud proposed that the mind is divided into three components, which interact to shape personality and behavior: 1. Id: ● The id is the most basic and instinctive part of the personality. ● It operates on the pleasure principle, seeking instant gratification of needs and desires like hunger, warmth, or sex. ● The id is completely unconscious and does not consider reality or social norms. ● Example: A baby crying when hungry is driven by the id. 2. Superego: ● The superego is the moral part of the personality, shaped by parents and societal rules. ● It strives for perfection and can cause feelings of guilt or shame when expectations aren’t met. 3. Ego: ● The ego mediates between the id’s desires and the superego’s moral standards. ● It operates on the reality principle, finding realistic ways to satisfy the id’s needs without violating the superego’s demands. ● The ego is mostly conscious but uses defense mechanisms (like denial or rationalization) to handle conflicts between the id and superego. ● Example: Choosing to eat a healthy snack instead of cake when trying to lose weight is the ego balancing impulses and rules. How These Components Interact ● Freud believed that conflicts between the id, ego, and superego drive much of human behavior. ● For example, a person struggling with impulse control (e.g., addiction or resisting cake) might have a dominant id or a weak ego. ● The superego operates on both conscious and unconscious levels. ● Example: Feeling guilty for lying is an influence of the superego.

Let's consider an example of someone named "John" who struggles with saying no to drugs.

Freud's Aggression Instinct Theory suggests that aggression is an inherent drive, part of human nature, and closely linked to survival instincts. He proposed that humans possess both life ( Eros ) and death ( Thanatos ) instincts, with aggression stemming from the death instinct. According to Freud, this aggressive energy can be redirected or repressed, and when not managed, it can lead to destructive behavior. Defense Mechanisms Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies that the ego uses to protect itself from anxiety, shame, or guilt. Below is the table showing the different defense mechanisms.

Defense Mechanism

Definition

Example

Blocks threatening memories from the conscious mind Projection of aggression onto objects other than its source. Rationalization happens when someone gives a reasonable but not completely true explanation for their actions to avoid feeling uncomfortable or being judged. An individual unconsciously transforms an uncomfortable feeling or impulse into its opposite behavior or expression.

Repression

Children in abusive homes may forget the abuse that occurred. A child upset about a new sibling might tear off a doll's head or cut its hair. A person who does not drink alcohol might say, “I have to wake up early” or “I’m on medication” instead of saying they don’t like alcohol or had a bad experience in the past. A person who feels uncertain about their religious beliefs may strongly commit to a religion and actively try to convert others. A child who sucked their thumb as a baby may revert to this behavior when a new baby arrives.

Displacement

Rationalization

Reaction Formation

The state of reverting to previous behavior

Regression

Defense Mechanisms (continued)

Defense Mechanism

Definition

Example

The refusal to confess that something upsetting exists

Denial

A parent refuses to believe their child is a bully when told. A person who feels hostile toward a coworker may accuse the coworker of being hostile, unconsciously shifting their own aggression onto the other person to avoid acknowledging it.

Projection

When a person unconsciously attributes their own thoughts or feelings to someone else.

Freud's Psychosexual Development Theory Freud's Psychosexual Theory suggests personality is developed during childhood and influenced by early experiences. He believed that behavior is driven by psychosexual energy ( libido ), which is controlled by the id's pleasure principle - the need for immediate satisfaction. He outlined five stages, each focused on different erogenous zones, where successful resolution is key to healthy development.

Stage

Focus

Characteristics

Possible Fixations

Oral Stage Birth–1 year

Mouth (sucking, biting)

Pleasure is focused on oral activities (e.g., feeding). Pleasure is focused on controlling bowel movements. Children start having awareness of their bodies and differences. The focus switches to learning, social interactions and hobbies. Sexual energy is directed towards mature relationships.

Dependency, smoking, overeating, nail-biting, or excessive talking.

Anal Stage 1–3 years

Anus (toilet training)

Overly orderly (anal) or disorganized, stubbornness.

Phallic Stage 3–6 years

Genitals (self- discovery)

Oedipus/Electra complex, vanity, recklessness or relationship difficulties. Social withdrawal, lack of confidence or excessive focus on work/achievement. Difficulty with intimacy, immature relationships, promiscuity or fear of sexuality.

Latency Stage 6–11 years

Sexual feelings are dormant

Genital Stage 12 years and up

Genitals (mature sexual relationships)

Freud believed resolving childhood conflicts was key to healthy development. Unresolved issues could affect adult behavior .

Criticisms of Freud's Work ● Lack of Scientific Evidence: Many of Freud’s ideas, such as the unconscious mind and psychosexual stages, lack direct scientific proof. ● Reliance on Case Studies: Freud based his theories on a small number of clinical cases, making it hard to apply them to all people. ● Cultural Bias: His theories reflect 19th-century views on sexuality and gender, making them less relevant in modern psychology. ● Androcentric (Male-Centered) Perspective: Freud’s ideas focused on male psychology, often overlooking female development. ● Unscientific Methods: Many of Freud’s theories, including dream analysis, cannot be tested through experiments. Debated Concepts: The Oedipus and Electra Complexes One of Freud’s most controversial claims is that during the phallic stage (3–6 years), children develop an unconscious attraction to their opposite-sex parent: ● Oedipus Complex (Boys): Boys unconsciously desire their mothers and see their fathers as rivals. ＞ Castration Anxiety: The fear that the father will punish them by removing their penis. ● Electra Complex (Girls): Girls desire their fathers and feel a rivalry with their mothers. ＞ Penis Envy: The idea that girls feel incomplete because they lack male genitalia. Many modern psychologists critique or reinterpret these ideas, though Freud's theories remain historically significant, arguing that they reflect outdated gender views rather than universal psychological experiences. Freud’s Lasting Impact Despite these criticisms, Freud pioneered modern personality psychology, especially in areas like: ● Defense mechanisms (e.g., repression, projection) ● The role of childhood experiences in shaping personality Later psychologists expanded or challenged his work: ● Carl Jung: Focused on unconscious forces but disagreed with Freud’s emphasis on sexuality. He introduced the concept of the collective unconscious —a shared set of memories and archetypes across cultures. ● Karen Horney: Rejected Freud’s idea of penis envy in women and suggested that womb envy (men’s unconscious envy of women’s ability to give birth) was equally possible.

Daniel Levinson’s Adult Development Theory Daniel Levinson studied how adults psychologically, socially, and emotionally develop throughout life. He proposed that adults go through stages of stability and change , reassessing their relationships, careers, and goals as they age. Key Ideas: ● People form a life structure —a combination of work, relationships, and personal values. ● Throughout adulthood, people experience periods of stability , followed by transitional phases where they reevaluate their choices. ● Life transitions (e.g., midlife crisis, career shifts) can lead to growth or stress, depending on how individuals adapt. Criticism: ● Levinson’s research focused mainly on middle-aged men, leading to gender bias and making the theory less applicable to women and other groups.

Period

Life Tasks to be Accomplished

Structure

Early Adulthood (17–22)

Test preferences for adult life, explore one's place in the world, independent of youth institutions. Develop personal identity, solidify career goals, form intimate relationships, seek new communities (e.g., religion, hobbies, sports). Reflect on accomplishments from the 20s, reassess choices, and adjust the current life structure. Strive to achieve personal and professional goals, reinvesting time into work, family, and community. Review 30s life structure, leading to change, regret, and a shift in perspective on life's meaning and mortality. Based on previous reflection, people commit to and act on new ideas and outlooks. Answer questions previously raised and adjusted to life choices Ages 60-85 are split into a stable and transitional period - giving up authority or power, such as retiring. Confront the reality of death, reflect on life's meaning, accomplishments, and unresolved conflicts, physical decline. This may bring peace or anxiety.

Transitional

Adult World (22–28)

Stable

Thirties Transition (29–33)

Transitional

Settling Down (34–39)

Stable

Mid-Life Transition (40–45) Entering middle Adulthood (45–50)

Transitional

Stable

Fifties Transition (51–55) Question the life structure previously adopted.

Transitional

Culmination of Middle Adulthood (56–60)

Stable

Late Adulthood (60+)

Transitional

Facing Mortality (85+)

Transitional

F. Contextual Theories Contextual theories focus on how environmental and cultural factors shape development. These theories emphasize that individuals grow through interactions with their surroundings. Major frameworks include: ● Social Cognition: How people understand and interact with others. ● Sociocultural Theory: The role of social interactions and cultural tools in learning. ● Ecological Systems Theory: How different layers of the environment influence development. Social Cognition Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory highlights observational learning and modeling as key ways children develop. Instead of learning only through direct experience, children learn by watching and imitating others’ actions, attitudes, and emotions . Key Conditions for Observational Learning: For a person to successfully observe and imitate behavior, four conditions must be met: 3. Reproduction: The person must be able to replicate the behavior. 4. Motivation: There must be a reason to perform the behavior. For instance, a child watches their parents patiently wait in line. Later, the child regulates their own emotions when waiting in a similar situation. The Bobo Doll Experiment Bandura’s most famous study, the Bobo Doll Experiment, demonstrated how children learn aggressive behavior through observation: ● Two groups of children watched videos of adults playing with a Bobo doll . ＞ One group saw adults acting aggressively toward the doll and not being punished. ＞ Another group saw adults being punished for their aggression. ● Results: ＞ Children who watched the aggressive video without punishment copied the violent behavior. ＞ Children who saw aggressive behavior punished were less likely to act aggressively. This experiment showed that children learn behaviors from social interactions , even without direct reinforcement. 1. Attention: The individual must notice the behavior. 2. Retention: The behavior must be remembered.

Social Learning Theory vs. Social Cognitive Theory Over time, social learning theory developed into social cognitive theory, adding a greater emphasis on cognitive processes in learning. Key Concepts in Social Cognitive Theory: 1. Self-Efficacy: A person’s belief in their ability to succeed in a task or achieve a goal. Higher self-efficacy leads to more effort and persistence. 2. Reciprocal Determinism: Development is shaped by the interaction of: ● Behavior (actions and choices) Example: A child who believes they are good at math (self-efficacy) is more likely to study hard (behavior), which improves their grades and builds confidence. Their positive environment (support from teachers and parents) reinforces their learning. Sociocultural Theory Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory emphasizes the importance of social interactions and cultural context in cognitive development. He believed that children learn best through guided interactions with more knowledgeable individuals, such as parents, teachers, and peers. Learning is also shaped by cultural tools , such as language, symbols, and technology. Vygotsky recognized that language connects communities and that the knowledge children acquire is influenced by the cultural values and practices of the adults around them. Key Concepts: ● Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The gap between what a child can do alone and what they can achieve with guidance from a more skilled person. ＞ Example: A child struggling with math can solve problems with a teacher’s help but not independently. With practice, they gain the skill to do it alone. ● Scaffolding: Temporary support from a more knowledgeable individual that helps a child master a task. As the child becomes more competent, the support is gradually removed. ＞ Example: A parent helping a child tie their shoes by guiding their hands until they can do it alone. ● Cultural Tools: Physical and psychological tools that influence learning, including language, writing, numbers, and technology . ＞ Example: The use of calculators, books, or storytelling to teach concepts in different cultures. ● Personal factors (thoughts, emotions, traits) ● Environment (social and physical surroundings)

Ecological Systems Theory Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory explains how a child’s development is shaped by different environmental layers, from immediate family interactions to broader societal influences. Five Environmental Layers of Development 1. Microsystem (Direct Environment) ● The innermost layer , where children have direct interactions with their family, school, daycare, and peer groups . ● These interactions are bidirectional —children influence their environment, and their environment shapes them. ● Example: A child with supportive parents may develop confidence, while a difficult temperament in a child may lead to different parenting strategies. 2. Mesosystem (Connections Between Microsystems) ● The interactions between different microsystems , such as family, school, and peer groups. ● Example: A strong parent-teacher relationship creates a consistent and supportive learning environment. 3. Exosystem (Indirect Influences) ● Settings that do not directly involve the child but still impact development, such as a parent’s workplace. ● Example: A parent’s job stress may create tension at home, affecting the child’s emotional well-being. 4. Macrosystem (Cultural and Societal Factors) ● Broad influences , such as economic conditions, political systems, and cultural values, shape child development. ● Example: In societies that value education, schools may receive more funding, improving learning opportunities. 5. Chronosystem (The Role of Time) ● Considers how time and life events influence development. ● Example: A child born before or after 9/11 may grow up with different worldviews due to historical events.

Additional Concepts ● Predictable vs. Unpredictable Life Changes:

＞ Predictable events (starting school, puberty) and unexpected events (divorce, economic downturns) shape development differently. ＞ Example: A child who moves frequently may struggle to form lasting friendships. ● Differential Susceptibility: ＞ Some children are more sensitive to environmental influences due to genetic differences. ＞ Example: A child with a high-stress response may struggle more in a negative home environment than a child with greater emotional resilience. Ecological Niche Theory

Ecological Niche Theory explains how an individual’s traits interact with their environment to shape development. This theory suggests that development is optimized when characteristics and environment are well-matched , while a mismatch can create challenges. Key Principles

1. Adaptation to the Environment: ● Individuals develop traits that help them survive and thrive in their specific environment. ● Example: In social environments where cooperation is essential, natural selection may favor early development of communication and empathy skills . 2. Environmental Fit: ● Supportive environments that align with an individual’s abilities and needs encourage healthy development. ● Mismatched environments can create difficulties and hinder progress . ● Example: A highly creative child in a rigid, rule-based school system may struggle to succeed. 3. Natural Selection and Development: ● Traits that help individuals survive and reproduce are passed on to future generations. ● Over time, environmental conditions shape developmental patterns in a population.

Imagine a population of birds living in a dense forest with limited open space.

● Chicks that develop strong climbing and spatial navigation skills will have an advantage in finding food and avoiding predators. ● Over generations, natural selection favors genes that enhance agility and spatial awareness. ● As a result, these abilities develop earlier in future generations, ensuring better survival. This example illustrates how environments act as selective pressures , influencing which traits become more common in a population. G. Research Strategies & Methodologies To make sure research results are accurate and trustworthy, psychologists use structured methods to study human development. The scientific method is a key approach that helps researchers ask questions, test ideas, and draw conclusions based on evidence. The Scientific Method The scientific method is a systematic process used in research to collect evidence, test ideas, and draw conclusions . It provides a reliable framework for studying psychology, developmental research, and science in general.

Scenario: Imagine you're curious about whether studying in a quiet room improves test scores compared to studying in a noisy environment. 1. Formulate a Research Question: Does studying in a quiet room lead to better test performance than studying in a noisy room? 2. Develop a Hypothesis: Students who study in a quiet room will score higher on a test than students who study in a noisy room. ● Operational Definitions: > Quiet Room: A space with no audible distractions, such as a library. > Noisy Room: A space with background music and chatter, such as a café. > Test Performance: The percentage score on a standardized test after studying.

Page 2 Page 3 Page 4 Page 5 Page 6 Page 7 Page 8 Page 9 Page 10 Page 11 Page 12 Page 13 Page 14 Page 15 Page 16 Page 17 Page 18 Page 19 Page 20 Page 21 Page 22 Page 23 Page 24 Page 25 Page 26 Page 27 Page 28 Page 29 Page 30 Page 31 Page 32 Page 33 Page 34 Page 35 Page 36 Page 37 Page 38 Page 39 Page 40 Page 41 Page 42 Page 43 Page 44 Page 45 Page 46 Page 47 Page 48 Page 49 Page 50 Page 51 Page 52 Page 53 Page 54 Page 55 Page 56 Page 57 Page 58 Page 59 Page 60 Page 61 Page 62 Page 63 Page 64 Page 65 Page 66 Page 67 Page 68 Page 69 Page 70 Page 71 Page 72 Page 73 Page 74 Page 75 Page 76 Page 77 Page 78 Page 79 Page 80 Page 81 Page 82 Page 83 Page 84 Page 85 Page 86 Page 87 Page 88 Page 89 Page 90 Page 91 Page 92 Page 93 Page 94 Page 95 Page 96 Page 97 Page 98 Page 99 Page 100 Page 101 Page 102 Page 103 Page 104 Page 105 Page 106 Page 107 Page 108 Page 109 Page 110 Page 111 Page 112 Page 113 Page 114 Page 115 Page 116 Page 117 Page 118 Page 119 Page 120 Page 121 Page 122 Page 123 Page 124 Page 125 Page 126 Page 127 Page 128 Page 129 Page 130 Page 131 Page 132 Page 133 Page 134 Page 135 Page 136 Page 137 Page 138 Page 139 Page 140 Page 141 Page 142 Page 143 Page 144 Page 145 Page 146 Page 147 Page 148 Page 149 Page 150 Page 151 Page 152 Page 153 Page 154 Page 155 Page 156 Page 157 Page 158 Page 159 Page 160 Page 161 Page 162 Page 163 Page 164 Page 165 Page 166 Page 167 Page 168 Page 169 Page 170 Page 171 Page 172 Page 173 Page 174 Page 175 Page 176 Page 177 Page 178 Page 179 Page 180 Page 181 Page 182 Page 183 Page 184 Page 185 Page 186 Page 187 Page 188 Page 189 Page 190 Page 191 Page 192 Page 193 Page 194 Page 195 Page 196 Page 197 Page 198

Made with FlippingBook Online newsletter creator