Human Growth and Development

The following table outlines four main schedules of reinforcement:

Schedule

Pros

Cons

Continuous: every instance of the desired behavior is reinforced. Fixed Ratio: reinforcement is given after a set number of desired behaviors. Variable Ratio: reinforcement is given after a random number of desired behaviors. Variable Interval: reinforcement is given after a random amount of time following a desired behavior.

Most effective for initial learning of new behaviors.

Reinforced behaviors may quickly fade once reinforcement stops, making them difficult to maintain long term. Not sustainable long-term; responses may decrease or stop if reinforcement isn't immediate. Unpredictable timing of reinforcement can be frustrating.

Produces a rapid response rate for the desired behavior.

Relatively easy to maintain, promoting high and consistent response rates.

Easy to maintain long term, but produces a steady, low response rate.

Behaviors may not be as strong initially compared to continuous reinforcement.

Humanistic Theory

Abraham Maslow emphasized the importance of intrinsic motivation—the internal drive to perform actions because they are fulfilling or meaningful. For example: ●​ Intrinsic Motivation: Exercising for the sense of accomplishment or personal satisfaction. ●​ Extrinsic Motivation: Working for a paycheck even if the job itself isn’t enjoyable. Maslow argued that intrinsic motivation is essential for healthy development and criticized the behaviorist focus on punishments and rewards. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a model that describes the different levels of motivation that drive human behavior. It is often shown as a pyramid, with the following categories: ●​ Physiological Needs: Food, water, shelter—essential for survival. ●​ Safety Needs: Security, stability, and freedom from fear. ●​ Social Needs: Relationships, love, and connection with others. ●​ When these needs are unmet, people feel a strong sense of deficiency (e.g., hunger, loneliness). 2.​ Growth Needs (Higher-Level Needs): 1.​ Deficiency Needs (Basic Needs):

●​ Aesthetic and Cognitive Needs: The desire for beauty, creativity, and knowledge. ●​ Self-Actualization: Achieving personal goals and realizing one’s potential.

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