SAMPLE Introduction to Psychology
THE ULTIMATE CREDIT-BY-EXAM STUDY GUIDE FOR: Introduction to Psychology 2 nd Edition
11/02/2023
Acknowledgements WewouldliketothanktheauthorsJessicaBurgess,FrancesAnnAguda,HanetteStimiefortheir patience, support, and expertise in contributing to this study guide; and our editors for their invaluableeffortsinreadingandeditingthetext.WewouldalsoliketothankthoseatAchieveTest Prep whose hard work and dedication to fulfilling this project did not go unnoticed. Lastly, we would like tothanktheAchieveTestPrepstudentswhohavecontributedtothegrowthofthese materials over the years.
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Contents Chapter 1: The Nature and History of Psychology
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A. Definition and Goals of Psychology
1 2 2 4 9
B. History of Psychology
C. Psychological Approaches & Theorists
D. The 7 Major Perspectives of Modern Psychology
Chapter 1: Review Questions
Chapter 2: Research
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A. The Scientific Method
11 12 18 18 20 22 29 30 32 34 35 37 37 38 39 41 42 42 42 43 44 45 45 46 47 48 48 22 41
B. Research Design & Methods
C. Samples and Populations in Research
D. Ethics in Research
Chapter 2: Review Questions
Chapter 3: Biological Influences on Behavior
A. Development of Brain and Nervous System
B. Endocrine System
C. Etiology of Disease: Definition and Example
D. Brain-Related Genetics E. What is Neuroplasticity?
F. Genes, Evolution, and the Environment
G. Environmental Influences H. Neuropsychological Tests I. Physiological Psychology Chapter 3: Review Questions
Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception
A. Psychophysics and Thresholds
B. Perceptual Process C. Sensory Adaptation
D. Vision E. Hearing F. Taste G. Smell
H. Skin Senses
I. Basic Perceptual Phenomena J. Influences on Perception K. Subliminal Perception L. Extra-sensory Perception
Chapter 4: Review Questions
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Chapter 5: Consciousness
50
A. Consciousness
51 53 56 58 60
B. Sleep
C. Hypnosis
D. Psychoactive Drugs
Chapter 5: Review Questions
Chapter 6: Thinking and Intelligence
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A. Cognition
62 65 71
B. Intelligence
Chapter 6: Review Questions
Chapter 7: Learning and Memory
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A. Learning B. Memory
73 84 85 90
C. Memory as a Reconstructive Process
Chapter 7: Review Questions
Chapter 8: Motivation and Emotion
92
A. Specific Motives
92 99
B. Emotion
Chapter 8: Review Questions
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Chapter 9: Theories on Human Development
105
A. Developmental Psychology
105 106 116
B. Theories on Human Development
Chapter 9: Review Questions
Chapter 10: Physical Human Development
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A. Prenatal Development B. Developments in Infancy
118 119 120 122 122 122 123 123 124 125
C. Language Learning
D. Influences of Gender Development E. Development in Adolescence F. Development in Early Adulthood G. Development in Middle Adulthood
H. Retirement
I. Conflicts and Concerns of Late Adulthood
Chapter 10: Review Questions
Chapter 11: Personality
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A. Personality Defined
127 127 128 128 132 134 135 136 136 137 139 139 141 142 142 153 155 155 157 160 163 167 139 155
B. Key Characteristics of Personality
C. Theories of Personality
D. Psychodynamic Theories of Personality
E. Humanistic Theory
F. Cognitive Theories of Personality
G. Trait Theories
H. Trait Assessment Testing I. Researching Personality Traits Chapter 11: Review Questions
Chapter 12: Psychological Disorders and Therapy
A. Psychological Disorders
B. Stress C. Testing
D. Diagnosis
E. Different Types of Disorders Chapter 12: Review Questions
Chapter 13: Social Psychology
A. Social Psychology
B. Social Roles
C. Social Cognition D. Group Behavior
E. Self-Identity
Chapter 13: Review Questions
Chapter Review Answer Key
169
Practice Exam
171
Practice Exam Answer Key
180
Chapter 1: The Nature and History of Psychology Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
● Define psychology and identify its major perspectives with their notable figures ● Discuss the history of psychology ● Explain the ecological system ● Identify the branches of psychology A. Definition and Goals of Psychology
Psychologyinvolvessystematicinvestigationintothecomplexitiesofhumanbehaviorandcognition.Itis a scientific approach that enables a comprehensive understanding of the intricate workings of the mind.
Psychology involves the dynamic examination and comprehension of the cognitive and behavioral processes that drive human beings. Unfortunately, the challenge in psychologyliesinitsintangibility. Unlike physical ailments that can be detected through medical imaging or biopsy, psychological disturbancescannotbevisuallyobserved.Thehumanmindremainsinvisibletothenakedeye,rendering it impossible to deduce the existence of a psychological condition based on appearances alone. Occasionally,theevaluationofpsychologycanbecontingentonobservablebehavior.Forinstance,ifan individualengagesinself-dialogueorexperiencesvisualhallucinations,itmaynotbeapparentthrough mere observation that there exists an underlying mental disorder. However, such behaviors can be corroborated via specialized assessments that are designed to evaluate these behavioral manifestations . The inception of psychology can be traced back to its initial attempt to address fundamental philosophical inquiries about the essence of human nature through the assimilation of frameworks borrowedfromthedisciplinesofphysics,physiology,andalliedsciences.Psychology’smethodicaland rigorous approach has resulted inthedevelopmentofcomprehensiveandpreciseinsightsintohuman behavior, encompassing regular everyday actions as well as observable conventional behavioral patterns . A recurring challenge in psychology pertains to defining normal behavior, as behavior is subject to situationalnuances .Itiswellunderstoodthatone’sconductattheworkplacedifferssignificantlyfrom that exhibited during leisure activities, such as attending a birthday party with friends. Psychology, as a scientific discipline, encompasses four fundamental objectives, namely: description, explanation, control, and application.
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● Description: The most fundamental objective of psychology is to achieve an accurate description of human behavior, cognition, and feeling ● Explanation: The explanation of human behavior is commonly presented through the proposition of hypotheses and theories that aim to explain the underlying factors that drive actions. Psychologists aresteadfastintheirpursuittocomprehendandrationalizethemotives behind human behavior. ● Control: Psychologistsundertakethetaskofdesigningexperimentsandotherformsofresearch to assess the validity of their proposed explanations, this is referred to as control. ● Application: The utilization of psychologicalknowledgeinthebettermentofhumanwelfareis the fundamental objective of psychologists in the field of application.
B. History of Psychology Earlyphilosophersbelievedthatthemindandbodyareseparate,withthemindbeingaspiritualentity unaffectedbythebody'sphysicallaws.However,advancementsinphysiologyandmedicinecontributed to the development of psychology. Dualism suggests that studying the physical body, including the brain,cannotfullyexplainthemysteriesofthenonphysicalmind.Ontheotherhand, monism suggests that the mind and body are one, and mental events can be explained by physical events in the brain.
C. Psychological Approaches & Theorists Structuralism in Psychology: WUNDT, LEVI-STRAUSS, AND BENJAMIN BLOOM Structuralism is a significant school of thought in psychology that examines the basic elements of consciousnessandtheircombinationtoformcomplexexperiences.Wewillexplorethecontributionsof
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Wilhelm Wundt and Claude Levi-Strauss to structuralism while also demonstrating how Bloom's taxonomy can aid psychology students in understandingand applying this knowledge effectively. Wilhelm Wundt ● Wundt founded the first experimental psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. ● Heused introspection ,whereparticipantsreportedtheirthoughtsandfeelings,touncoverthe structure of conscious experience. ● Wundt emphasized breaking down complex mental experiences into simpler elements and recognized the role of volition in shaping mentalprocesses. Claude Levi-Strauss ● Levi-Strauss applied structuralist principles to the study of culture and society. ● He highlighted the organization of binary oppositions as the basis of human thought and meaning. ● Levi-Strauss developed structuralanthropology tounderstandthedeepstructuresthatshape human behavior and beliefs. Bloom’s Taxonomy By integrating Bloom's taxonomy with the study of structuralism, psychology students can progress through various cognitive levels, deepening their understanding and application of structuralist concepts.Thisframeworkpromotescriticalthinkingskillsandhelpsstudentsdevelopacomprehensive grasp of structuralism's implications for the study of human psychology and culture. The taxonomy classifies thinking skills into six levels, here's how it relates to structuralism: ● Remembering: Recall the key concepts and principlesof structuralism. ● Understanding: Grasp the fundamental tenets of structuralism, including elemental components and the role of culture and consciousness. ● Applying: Apply structuralist principles to analyze psychological phenomena and cultural practices. ● Analyzing: Criticallyevaluatethestrengthsandlimitationsofstructuralismandcompareitwith other theories. ● Evaluating: Assess the impact of structuralism on psychology and its contributions to understanding human cognition and culture. ● Creating: Synthesize knowledge to develop innovativeresearch ideas or interventions. Functionalism - WILLIAM JAMES In the United States, structuralism eventually gave way to functionalism, which held that psychology shouldstudythe functionsofconsciousness ratherthanitselements.Functionalismwasinfluencedby Darwin’s evolutionary theory , which stressed the importance of adaptation in helping organisms survive and reproduce in their environment. William James (1842-1910), aleaderinthefunctionalist movement, taught courses in physiology and psychology at Harvard University.
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James helped widen the scope of psychology to include the study of various biological and mental processes and overt behavior. Although functionalism no longer exists as a school of thought within psychology,itstraditionenduresintwomodern-dayfields: cognitivepsychology ,whichstudiesmental processes, and evolutionary psychology , which emphasizesthe adaptiveness of behavior. Gestalt Psychology - WERTHEIMER, KOFFKA, KÖHLER By the 1920s, three German scientists had formed a school of thoughtknownasGestaltpsychology, whichexaminedhowthemindorganizeselementsofexperienceintoaunifiedorwholeperception.They argued that perceptions are organized so that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Gestalt psychology stimulated interest in topics such as perception and problem-solving. According to the OxfordDictionary,theword gestalt referstoanorganizedwholethatisperceivedasmorethanthesum of its parts. Classical Conditioning - IVAN PAVLOV Intheearly1900s,experimentsbyRussianphysiologistIvanPavlovrevealedhowlearningoccurswhen eventsare associated withoneanother.Pavlovfoundthatdogsautomaticallylearnedtosalivatetothe sound of a new stimulus, such as a tone or bell, if that stimuluswasrepeatedlypairedwithaknown stimulus , such as food. This particular typeofpsychologyexamineshoworganismslearnthroughthe consequences of their actions. Thus, learning is the key to understanding how experience molds behavior . D. The 7 Major Perspectives of Modern Psychology
Manyhistoricalaspectsandperspectivesmentionedearlier in psychology still hold relevance and can be observed in modern-day psychological perspectives. These enduring influences highlightthelastingimpactofpasttheoriesand ideas on our understanding of human behavior and the development of contemporary psychological frameworks . Cognitive - JEAN PIAGET & ALBERT BUNDURA The cognitive perspective, embodied by the subfield of cognitive psychology, views humans as information processorswhothink,judge,andsolveproblems.Cognitive neuroscience examines brain processes that occur as people perform mental tasks. This perspective views the human as a thinker, studying a person’s thoughts, anticipations,planning,perceptions,attention,andmemory processes.
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Jean Piaget and AlbertBandura madesignificantcontributionstopsychology,althoughtheirtheories focusondifferentaspectsofhumandevelopmentandlearning.Piaget's cognitivedevelopmenttheory emphasizesstagesofcognitivegrowth,whileBandura's socialcognitivetheory highlightsobservational learning and self-efficacy. However, both psychologists acknowledge the importance of cognitive
processes and interaction with the environment in shaping learning and development. Behaviorism - JOHN WATSON, BURRHUS SKINNER & IVAN PAVLOV
The behavioral perspective emphasizes how the externalenvironment andlearningshape behavior . WatsonandSkinnerbelievedthatpsychologyshould study only observable stimuli and responses, not unobservable mental processes. Behaviorism is a school of thought which emphasizesenvironmental control of behavior through learning. Behaviorists soughttodiscoverlawsthatgovernlearning,andtheybelievedthatthesamebasicprinciplesoflearning applied to all organisms. Skinner was a leading 20 th -century behavioristwhobelievedthattherealcausesofbehaviorresidein theouterworld:“Apersondoesnotactupontheworld,theworldactsuponhim.”Skinnerbelievedthat through social engineering, society could harnessthepoweroftheenvironmenttochangebehaviorin beneficial ways. His approach, known as radical behaviorism, was esteemed for its scientific contributionsandforfocusingattentiononhowenvironmentalforcescouldbeusedtoenhancehuman welfare. Humanistic - ABRAHAM MASLOW & CARL ROGERS Humanistic psychology emphasizes free will, personal growth, self-actualization, and subjective experience. Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers are notable figures in this field. Maslow's hierarchy of needs highlights basic needs and self-fulfillment, whileRogers'person-centeredapproachfocuseson empathy and self-discovery. Both contributed to a positive understanding of human nature, leavinga lasting impact on psychology and psychotherapy.
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Chapter 2: Research Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
● Discuss the importance of the scientific method and its steps ● Identify the different research designs and methods ● Differentiate between sample and population ● Explain the value of ethics in research
Researchmethodologiesinpsychologywillbediscussedbelow.Theresearchmethodologiesdelineated in this chapter are applied within thedomainsofgeneralanddevelopmentalpsychology.Thischapter explains the fundamental principles of research and the value of information gathering for improved patient care. Additionally, we will discuss different research methods, focusing ondatagatheringand analysis. A. The Scientific Method
The scientific method, whichhasbeenusedinscience sincethe17 th century,involvessystematic observation , experimentation , measurement , testing , hypothesis formulation , and hypothesis modification . The scientific method can be adjusted, reduced, or expanded depending on the profession, the question asked,andthefieldofscience.Herearethestepswith an example hypothesis: 1. Observation : In this initial step, scientists carefully observe andgatherinformationabout a specific phenomenon or problem. Observations can be made through direct observations or by analyzing existing data.
Example: Example: Plants in a particular area are growing taller than those in another area.
2. Question :Basedontheobservations,scientistsdevelopaspecificquestionorproblemthatthey want to address. The question should be focused and testable.
Example: Why are plants in one area growing taller? Is it related to the soil composition?
3. Hypothesis : A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for the observed phenomenon. It is an educated guess that can be tested through experiments.
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Example: The taller plant growth is due to a higher concentration of nutrientsinthesoilofthespecific area. 4. Experiment : In this step, scientists designandcarryoutexperimentstotesttheirhypothesis. They carefully plan the procedures, variables, and controls to ensure reliable and valid results. Example:Conductcontrolledexperimentswithtwogroupsofplants,onegroupinthesoilfromthespecific areaandanothergroupinthesoilfromadifferentarea,keepingotherconditionscontrolledexceptforthe soil composition. 5. Conclusion : After conducting the experiments, scientists analyze the results to draw conclusions.Theyexaminethedatacollectedduringtheexperimentanddetermineifitsupports or contradicts the hypothesis. Example:Analyzetheresultsoftheexperimentanddetermineiftheplantsgrowninthespecificsoilarea did indeed grow taller, thus confirming the initial observation and supporting the hypothesis. 6. Result :Finally,scientistscommunicatetheirfindingstothescientificcommunityandthepublic. Theypresenttheirresultsthroughscientificpapers,presentations,orotherappropriatemeans. Inourplantgrowthexample,thescientistwouldpublishtheresults,includingthemethodology, data, and conclusions, for other researchers to review and potentially build upon. Example: Communicate the findings through scientific papers, presentations, or othermeans,including the methodology, data, and conclusions, for other researchers to review and potentially build upon. B. Research Design & Methods Research Design In the research process, the research design typically comes before determining the research methods . The research design outlines the overall structure and plan of the study, while the research methodsrefertothespecifictechniquesandproceduresusedtocollectandanalyzedata. Ithelpsguide researchers in making choices about the appropriate research methods to employ. This includes selecting data collection methods (e.g., surveys, interviews, experiments), sampling techniques, data analysistechniques(e.g.,statisticalanalysis,contentanalysis),andanyothernecessaryproceduresfor data collection and analysis. Three distinct research designs, known as cross-sectional study, cross-sequential study, and longitudinal study, will be discussed below. 1. LongitudinalStudy: Involvesstudyingthesamegroupofindividualsoveranextendedperiodof time to observe changes and developments. 2. Cross-Sectional Study: Compares individuals from different age groups at a specific point in time to examine differences and relationships.
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Chapter 3: Biological Influences on Behavior
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
● Describethebiologicalbasesofbehaviorbydiscussingtheimpactofgeneticinfluenceson behavior ● Describe the impact of evolution on behavior, utilizing five evolution theories and their impact on behavior ● Discuss environmental influences on behavior ● Describe the influence of hormones on behavior ● Describe the hierarchical brain structures and behavioral functions A. Development of Brain and Nervous System The Background In the 1800s, German scientist Ernst Weber began studies attempting to understand the sense of touch. Through his studies, he learned that various body parts are more sensitive than others which opened the pathway for research on the nervous system.Simpletissuefirstdevelopsintoatubethat runs from the skull to the tail bone forming the spinal cord and brain. An embryo features a distinct spinal cord and hindbrain , midbrain , and forebrain after the first 25 days of development. The nervous system comprises all of the body’s nerve cellsandisthebody’scommunicationsystem. Thenervoussystemisseparatedintothe PeripheralNervousSystem andthe CentralNervousSystem (CNS). Nervous System Central Nervous System: The brain and spinal cord make up the CNS.Theskullandspineshieldthis portionofthenervoussystem.Electricalimpulsestransmittedthroughneuronsenablecommunication, and the neurons connect via synapses .
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PeripheralNervousSystem :Thecollectionofneuralstructureswhichexistoutsidethebrainandspinal cordiscollectivelyknownastheperipheralnervoussystem.Itsintricatenetworkofspecializedneurons serves a dual purpose, facilitating both the input functions that allow us to sense what is occurring internally and externally in our bodiesandtheoutputfunctionsthatenabletheactivationofmuscular and glandular responses. The two primary divisions of this biological systemarethesomaticnervous system and the autonomic nervous system. Somatic Nervous System : This biological systemcomprisesasetofspecializedsensoryneuronsthat facilitate the transmission of signals from the eyes and ears alongside other receptors. It also encompasses motor neurons that transmit messages from thecentralnervoussystemtothemuscles responsibleforcontrollingvoluntarymovements.Thesomaticnervoussystemisaconduitforconveying sensoryinformationfrommuscles,senseorgans,andskintothecentralnervoussystem.Itenablesthe detection and processing of diverse stimuli, including pressure, pain, and temperature, among other sensorymodalities.Furthermore,italsofunctionstotransmitneuralsignalsfromthenervoussystemto the skeletal muscles, enabling voluntary movement. Autonomic Nervous System :Theautonomicnervoussystemplaysavitalroleinregulatingthebody's internal environment. It monitors and regulates the body’sinternalfunctions,includingthecontrolled secretionofglandsandthesmoothcontractionofinvoluntarymusclesthatmakeupvitalorganssuchas the heart, blood vessels, and gastrointestinal tract. The autonomic nervous system primarily governs involuntary actions, including respiration, circulation, and digestion, while playing a significant role in variousfacetsofemotionalbehavior,motivation,andresponsestostressors.Itconsistsoftwotypesof nervous systems, the sympathetic and parasympathetic. Sympathetic Nervous System : This biological system has an arousal or activation function characterized by its tendency to operate as acohesiveunit.Thesympatheticnervoussysteminitiates physiological changes that primethebodyforaction,commonlyknownasthefight-or-flightresponse. Theobservedphysiologicalresponsesincludeacceleratedheartrate,activationofthesweatglands,and expansion of the arteries. Parasympathetic Nervous System : The parasympathetic nervous system halts the activation of physiological responses stimulated by the sympatheticnervoussystemandisactiveduringperiodsof relaxation. The observed physiological responses include decelerated heart rate, breathing rate, and
digestive activity. The Neurons
The brain is the most significant physical organ in terms ofpsychology.Understandinghowindividual cells function and communicate with one another in the brain willhelpusbettergrasphowthebrain regulatesexperienceandbehavior. Neuronsarethebasicbuildingblocksofthenervoussystemandare the channels for communication. Neurons are also known as nerve cells.
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