Pathophysiology

Pathophysiology Study Guide

©2018 of 131 the brain: spinothalamic tract and spinoreicular tract. In the former, the secondary afferent neurones decussate in the entry level of the spinal cord and ascend the contralateral spinothalamic tract to nuclei within the thalamus. In the spinoreticular tract, the fibers decussate and ascend the contralateral cord and enter the brainstem reticular formation, followed by the thalamus and hypothalamus. Endorphins-Opioid Receptors Endorphins are forms of chemicals in the brain known as neurotransmitters, whose function is to transmit electrical signals in the central nervous system. These chemicals are found in the pituitary gland and parts of the brain in the human body. In the event of stress and pain, these endorphins are released to interact with the opiate receptors residing in the brain. The consequence of this interaction is the reduction in the perception of pain. These chemical secretions create the feeling of euphoria, modulate appetite, release sex hormones, and enhance the immune system. When the levels of endorphins are higher in the body, the feeling of pain and associated stress is less. Management of Pain Management of pain aims at easing the suffering from the feeling of pain so that quality of life can be improved. Pain can be eased with the help of certain medications. Medications for relieving chronic pain include non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like ibuprofen, naproxen, and aspirin; acetaminophen; antidepressants; anti-seizure medicines; and steroids. Therapies can also be used in relieving pain. The therapy for pain management should be a combination of physical and cognitive- behavioral therapy. Other pain management options include transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, meditation, relaxation techniques, visual imagery techniques, biofeedback, hot and cold therapies, manipulation, and massage. 6.8 Alterations of the Musculoskeletal System Alterations of the musculoskeletal system are comprised of disorders related to the bones, muscles, ligaments, and tendons. Some of the diseases and disorders in the musculoskeletal system are reviewed below. Muscles Disorders The role of muscles is to facilitate movement and functioning of the body. Disorders of the muscles have the potential to cause weakness, pain, and even paralysis. These disorders can be caused by injury, overuse, genetic disorders, cancers, inflammation, nerve dysfunction, infections, and certain medicines. Some disorders of muscles are reviewed below. Achieve Page 102