Human Growth and Development

Two key themes influence this development:

From birth to about one year , children go through the trust vs. mistrust stage. If their caregivers consistently meet their needs, they learn to trust them. If not, they may struggle to trust others. During early childhood (ages 2–3), as children begin to explore their world and manage on their own(e.g., toilet training, choosing clothes), they are faced with the autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage. If caregivers encourage them to explore, the child develops confidence and autonomy. However, controlling and overly critical caregivers can make the child experience feelings of shame and self-doubt. Children in preschool (ages 4–5) go through the initiative vs. guilt stage, where they start to take part in more purposeful activities and take up tasks. If they are encouraged and supported, they develop a sense of initiative. If they are criticised or punished for their curiosity or actions, they may experience guilt, which can lead to a fear of taking the initiative in future situations. During the industry vs. inferiority stage (ages 6–11) children start doing art, schoolwork and other activities. If the caregivers encourage their efforts, the child feels capable and confident. If their work is ignored or criticized, the child may feel inferior and have self-doubt. The Adolescence stage(ages 12–18), identity vs. role confusion, involves figuring out who they are by exploring their beliefs, social roles, values and goals. If they can successfully go through this stage they establish a strong sense of identity and confidence in the choices they make. But if they fail to find their identity, they may end up feeling confused and uncertain about themselves and their future. Psychologist James Marcia further explored identity development by suggesting four identity statuses that adolescents may experience:

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