Human Growth and Development

Practice Exam Rationale 1.​ A: In Schaie's Stages of Adult Cognitive Development, the achieving stage typically occurs in young adulthood, where individuals begin to apply the knowledge they have gained in earlier life stages to meet personal and professional goals. 2.​ A: In Freud’s theory, the id is the part of the personality that seeks immediate gratification of basic desires, such as food and pleasure. An overactive id might lead someone to give in frequently to these impulses. The ego ( B ) mediates between the id and reality, while the superego ( C ) represents internalized moral standards. Castration anxiety ( D ) refers to a fear of losing power or masculinity, and defense mechanisms ( E ) are strategies the ego uses to manage anxiety. Note: This theory is one of many in psychology, and other theories may interpret personality and behavior differently. 3.​ C: Jeff’s success depended on how many responses he made (e.g., how many tickets he purchased), indicating a ratio schedule. However, the number of responses required varied, making it a variable schedule. Tip: On an interval schedule, reinforcement increases with the passage of time, unlike gambling, which does not follow an interval schedule. 4.​ A: Epigenesis refers to the process through which both genetics and the environment influence an individual's development . The role of genetics and environment in development is a widely studied field, and theories vary on the extent of each factor’s influence. 5.​ B: Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory states that a person's development is affected by everything in their surrounding environment , including their immediate family, community, and societal systems. 6.​ C: Causation involves determining whether changes in one variable cause changes in another, distinguishing it from correlation , which simply shows a relationship between variables without establishing cause and effect. 7.​ D: Cross-sectional studies observe multiple groups at a single point in time, making them a cost-efficient way to collect data. Longitudinal studies , on the other hand, involve following the same group over time to track changes. Both research methods have advantages and limitations depending on the research goal. 8.​ A: Test-retest reliability refers to the consistency of test scores when the same test is administered to the same group of individuals at two different points in time. In option A , the Beck Depression Inventory was administered at admission and again a week later, with a correlation of 0.75, indicating a moderate to high level of reliability . Option B (Judging an essay contest) describes inter-rater reliability, where multiple judges score the same essay, and their scores are correlated with each other. It does not involve the same test taken at different times. Option C (ACT Forms A and B) compares two different forms of the ACT test, making it an example of alternate form reliability rather than test-retest reliability. Option D (Negative correlation of IQ levels) does not provide a reliable measurement due to the negative correlation

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