Introduction to Philosophy

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Phil -- ATP SG -- Introduction to Philosophy -- Updated 04.12.2017	3
Chapter One: The Nature of Philosophy	10
What is Philosophy?	10
Why Study Philosophy?	10
Having a Philosophy	11
Doing Philosophy (Thinking Philosophically)	11
Critical Thinking	11
Stages in Critical Thinking	12
Logical Reasoning	12
Argument Forms	12
Evaluating Arguments	12
Informal Fallacies	13
Branches of Philosophy	14
Bertrand Russell	15
Chapter One Definitions	16
Chapter One Review Questions	17
Chapter Two: What is the Philosopher’s Way?	19
Birth of Philosophy	19
The Socratic Method	19
Socrates’ Central Concern: The Soul	21
The Trial and Death of Socrates	23
Socrates’ Legacy	23
The Apology by Plato	24
Chapter Two Review Questions	25
Chapter Three: Who Are You? Consciousness, Identity, and the Self	27
Know Thyself	27
The Soul is Immortal: Socrates and Plato	27
Descartes’ Modern Perspective on the Self	28
Locke: The Self is Consciousness	29
Hume: There is No Self	29
Immanuel Kant: We Construct the Self	30
Freud: The Self is Multi-layered	31
Ryle: The Self is How You Behave	32
Physicalism: The Self is the Brain	32
Functionalism	33
Paul Churchland: Eliminative Materialism	33
Husserl and Merleau-Ponty: The Self is Embodied Subjectivity	34
Buddhist Concepts of Self	34
Making Connections: In Search of the Self	34
Chapter Three Review Questions	35
Chapter Four: Are You Free? Freedom and Determinism	37
Introduction	37
Views of Free Will	38
Determinism	39
The System of Nature	40
Compatibilism	40
Indeterminism and Libertarianism	41
William James: The Will to Believe	42
Sartre: We Create Ourselves through Our Choices	42
A Feminist Analysis of Freedom	44
Making Connections: Creating a Synthesis	44
Chapter Four Review Questions	46
Chapter Five: How Can We Know the Nature of Reality?	48
What is the Nature of Philosophy?	48
Pre-Socratic Philosophers	49
Plato: Reality is the Eternal Realm of the Forms	51
Aristotle: Reality is the Natural World	53
Descartes: Can Reality be known?	55
Making Connections: Your Beliefs about the World	55
Chapter Five Review Questions	57
Chapter Six: What is Real? What is True?	58
Questioning Independent Reality	58
Locke: All Knowledge comes from Experience	58
Leibniz’s Case against Locke	59
Locke’s Causal Theory of Perception	59
Berkeley: Reality Depends on Perception	60
Hume: Understanding Reality Demands Skepticism	60
Kant: We Constitute Our World	61
Two Realities: Phenomenal and Noumenal	64
Applying Kant’s Theories	64
Jaggar: Emotions Shape Our Understanding	64
Making Connections: Developing Informed Beliefs	65
Chapter Six Review Questions	66
Chapter Seven: Thinking Philosophically about Religious Beliefs	68
Introduction	68
What is Religion?	69
Feuerbach: God is a Human Projection	69
Nishitani: Religion is a Vital Quest	70
A Brief Survey of World Religions	71
Indigenous Sacred Ways	75
Can We Prove the Existence of God?	76
The Problem of Evil	78
John Hick: Philosophy of Religion	79
A Critique of Hick’s Theodicy	79
Faith and Religious Experience	80
Pascal: Religious Faith as a Wager	80
Clifford: Religious Beliefs Require Sufficient Evidence	80
James: Religious Belief is Legitimate and Compelling	81
Subjective Knowing: The Leap of Faith	82
Chapter Seven Review Questions	82
Chapter Eight: Are There Moral Truths?	84
Ethics and Values	84
Thinking Critically About Ethics	84
Ethical Relativism	85
Cultural Relativism: Each Culture Determines what is Morally Right	86
Ethical Absolutism: Some Moral Values are Universal	86
Egoism as a Universal Principle	87
Arguments for Egoism	88
Arguments against Egoism	89
Religion and Universal Values	90
Divine Command Theory	90
Natural Law Theory	90
Chapter Eight Review Questions	92
Chapter Nine: What are Right Actions? Constructing an Ethical Theory	94
Character: Virtue Ethics	94
Maxims: Duty to Moral Laws	96
Consequences: Utilitarianism	98
Bentham: The Greatest Happiness for the Greatest Number	98
Mill: Higher Pleasures have Greater Worth	99
Singer: Consider the Interests of Animals	100
Authenticity: Existentialist Ethics	100
Soren Kierkegaard	100
Nietzsche: Beyond Good and Evil	102
Sartre: Authenticity and Ethical Responsibility	103
De Beauvoir: Our Interplay with Others Defines Us	104
Camus: Courage is the Highest Value	104
Empathy: The Ethics of Care	105
Making Connections: Your Moral Compass Revisited	106
Chapter Nine Review Questions	107
Chapter Ten: What is Social Justice?	108
Elements of a Just Society	108
Classical Theories of Society: Confucius, Plato, and Aristotle	109
Plato: Society Should be Based on Function and Harmony	110
Aristotle: Society is the Natural State of Humanity	111
Justice Depends on a Social Contract	112
Hobbes: We Need a Social Contract to Coexist	112
Locke: The Social Contract Protects Natural Rights	113
The State of Nature: Assumptions and Questions	115
Rawls: The State of Nature is a Conceptual Tool	115
Marx and Engels: Justice is Based on Need and Ability	117
Mill: Justice is what Promotes the General Welfare	118
Okin: Justice is what Promotes Gender Equality	120
Making Connections: An Ideal Society	121
Chapter Ten Review Questions	122
Reflection Essay Questions	124
Chapter One Essay Question	124
Chapter Two Essay Question	124
Chapter Three Essay Question	124
Chapter Four Essay Question	125
Chapter Five Essay Question	125
Chapter Six Essay Question	125
Chapter Seven Essay Question	125
Chapter Eight Essay Question	126
Chapter Nine Essay Question	126
Chapter Ten Essay Question	126
Answer Keys for Chapters 1 - 10	127

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