Introduction to Philosophy

Achieve WAY!

DOING IT THE

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

www.AchieveTestPrep.com

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy UExcel Exam

Revised 4/12/17

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy

Achieve Test Prep PO Box 10188 #29831 Newark, NJ 07101-3188

http://www.achievetestprep.com/student

Copyright ©2017 by Gotham City Ventures All rights reserved. None of the material found in this study guide may be reproduced without permission from the publisher. Printed in the USA Disclaimer/Liability Release: The publication of this book is for the purpose of examination preparation. Gotham City Ventures does not guarantee the accuracy and completeness of the information contained herein and cannot claim liability in relation to the information or opinions contained within this study guide. Gotham city ventures will not be held liable for damages of any kind related to the materials found in this study guide.

Page 2 of 125

©2017

www.achievetestprep.com

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy

Table of Contents Chapter One: The Nature of Philosophy ............................................................................................................................. 8 What is Philosophy?............................................................................................................................................................. 8 Why Study Philosophy?....................................................................................................................................................... 8 Having a Philosophy............................................................................................................................................................ 9 Doing Philosophy (Thinking Philosophically)................................................................................................................. 9 Critical Thinking................................................................................................................................................................... 9 Stages in Critical Thinking ................................................................................................................................................ 10 Logical Reasoning .............................................................................................................................................................. 10 Argument Forms ................................................................................................................................................................ 10 Evaluating Arguments ....................................................................................................................................................... 10 Informal Fallacies ............................................................................................................................................................... 11 Branches of Philosophy .................................................................................................................................................... 12 Bertrand Russell.................................................................................................................................................................. 13 Chapter One Definitions .................................................................................................................................................. 14 Chapter One Review Questions ...................................................................................................................................... 15 Chapter Two: What is the Philosopher’s Way?.................................................................................................................. 17 Birth of Philosophy............................................................................................................................................................ 17 The Socratic Method ......................................................................................................................................................... 17 Socrates’ Central Concern: The Soul .............................................................................................................................. 19 The Trial and Death of Socrates...................................................................................................................................... 21 Socrates’ Legacy.................................................................................................................................................................. 21 Chapter Two Review Questions ...................................................................................................................................... 23 Chapter Three: Who Are You? Consciousness, Identity, and the Self .......................................................................... 25 Know Thyself ..................................................................................................................................................................... 25 The Soul is Immortal: Socrates and Plato ...................................................................................................................... 25 Descartes’ Modern Perspective on the Self ................................................................................................................... 26 Locke: The Self is Consciousness.................................................................................................................................... 27 Hume: There is No Self .................................................................................................................................................... 27 Immanuel Kant: We Construct the Self ......................................................................................................................... 28 Freud: The Self is Multi-layered ....................................................................................................................................... 29 Ryle: The Self is How You Behave ................................................................................................................................. 30 Physicalism: The Self is the Brain.................................................................................................................................... 30 Functionalism...................................................................................................................................................................... 31

Page 3 of 125

©2017

www.achievetestprep.com

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy

Paul Churchland: Eliminative Materialism..................................................................................................................... 31 Husserl and Merleau-Ponty: The Self is Embodied Subjectivity................................................................................ 32 Buddhist Concepts of Self ................................................................................................................................................ 32 Making Connections: In Search of the Self.................................................................................................................... 32 Chapter Three Review Questions.................................................................................................................................... 33 Chapter Four: Are You Free? Freedom and Determinism.............................................................................................. 35 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................ 35 Views of Free Will.............................................................................................................................................................. 36 Determinism........................................................................................................................................................................ 37 The System of Nature........................................................................................................................................................ 38 Compatibilism..................................................................................................................................................................... 38 Indeterminism and Libertarianism .................................................................................................................................. 39 William James: The Will to Believe ................................................................................................................................. 40 Sartre: We Create Ourselves through Our Choices...................................................................................................... 40 A Feminist Analysis of Freedom ..................................................................................................................................... 42 Making Connections: Creating a Synthesis .................................................................................................................... 42 Chapter Four Review Questions...................................................................................................................................... 44 Chapter Five: How Can We Know the Nature of Reality?.............................................................................................. 46 What is the Nature of Philosophy? ................................................................................................................................. 46 Pre-Socratic Philosophers ................................................................................................................................................. 47 Plato: Reality is the Eternal Realm of the Forms .......................................................................................................... 49 Aristotle: Reality is the Natural World............................................................................................................................ 51 Descartes: Can Reality be known?................................................................................................................................... 53 Making Connections: Your Beliefs about the World ................................................................................................... 53 Chapter Five Review Questions....................................................................................................................................... 55 Chapter Six: What is Real? What is True?........................................................................................................................... 56 Questioning Independent Reality .................................................................................................................................... 56 Locke: All Knowledge comes from Experience ........................................................................................................... 56 Leibniz’s Case against Locke ............................................................................................................................................ 57 Locke’s Causal Theory of Perception ............................................................................................................................. 57 Berkeley: Reality Depends on Perception ...................................................................................................................... 58 Hume: Understanding Reality Demands Skepticism.................................................................................................... 58 Kant: We Constitute Our World ..................................................................................................................................... 59 Two Realities: Phenomenal and Noumenal................................................................................................................... 62

Page 4 of 125

©2017

www.achievetestprep.com

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy

Applying Kant’s Theories ................................................................................................................................................. 62 Jaggar: Emotions Shape Our Understanding................................................................................................................. 62 Making Connections: Developing Informed Beliefs .................................................................................................... 63 Chapter Six Review Questions......................................................................................................................................... 64 Chapter Seven: Thinking Philosophically about Religious Beliefs.................................................................................. 66 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................ 66 What is Religion? ................................................................................................................................................................ 67 Feuerbach: God is a Human Projection ......................................................................................................................... 67 Nishitani: Religion is a Vital Quest.................................................................................................................................. 68 A Brief Survey of World Religions .................................................................................................................................. 69 Indigenous Sacred Ways.................................................................................................................................................... 73 Can We Prove the Existence of God? ............................................................................................................................ 74 The Problem of Evil .......................................................................................................................................................... 76 John Hick: Philosophy of Religion.................................................................................................................................. 77 A Critique of Hick’s Theodicy ......................................................................................................................................... 77 Faith and Religious Experience........................................................................................................................................ 78 Pascal: Religious Faith as a Wager ................................................................................................................................... 78 Clifford: Religious Beliefs Require Sufficient Evidence............................................................................................... 78 James: Religious Belief is Legitimate and Compelling.................................................................................................. 79 Subjective Knowing: The Leap of Faith......................................................................................................................... 80 Chapter Seven Review Questions.................................................................................................................................... 80 Chapter Eight: Are There Moral Truths?............................................................................................................................ 82 Ethics and Values ............................................................................................................................................................... 82 Thinking Critically About Ethics ..................................................................................................................................... 82 Ethical Relativism............................................................................................................................................................... 83 Cultural Relativism: Each Culture Determines what is Morally Right ...................................................................... 84 Ethical Absolutism: Some Moral Values are Universal................................................................................................ 84 Egoism as a Universal Principle....................................................................................................................................... 85 Arguments for Egoism...................................................................................................................................................... 86 Arguments against Egoism ............................................................................................................................................... 87 Religion and Universal Values.......................................................................................................................................... 88 Divine Command Theory................................................................................................................................................. 88 Natural Law Theory........................................................................................................................................................... 88 Chapter Eight Review Questions .................................................................................................................................... 90

Page 5 of 125

©2017

www.achievetestprep.com

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy

Chapter Nine: What are Right Actions? Constructing an Ethical Theory..................................................................... 92 Character: Virtue Ethics .................................................................................................................................................... 92 Maxims: Duty to Moral Laws........................................................................................................................................... 94 Consequences: Utilitarianism ........................................................................................................................................... 96 Bentham: The Greatest Happiness for the Greatest Number.................................................................................... 96 Mill: Higher Pleasures have Greater Worth................................................................................................................... 97 Singer: Consider the Interests of Animals...................................................................................................................... 98 Authenticity: Existentialist Ethics.................................................................................................................................... 98 Soren Kierkegaard.............................................................................................................................................................. 98 Nietzsche: Beyond Good and Evil................................................................................................................................100 Sartre: Authenticity and Ethical Responsibility ...........................................................................................................101 De Beauvoir: Our Interplay with Others Defines Us ................................................................................................102 Camus: Courage is the Highest Value...........................................................................................................................102 Empathy: The Ethics of Care.........................................................................................................................................103 Making Connections: Your Moral Compass Revisited ..............................................................................................104 Chapter Nine Review Questions ...................................................................................................................................105 Chapter Ten: What is Social Justice? .................................................................................................................................106 Elements of a Just Society ..............................................................................................................................................106 Classical Theories of Society: Confucius, Plato, and Aristotle..................................................................................107 Plato: Society Should be Based on Function and Harmony .....................................................................................108 Aristotle: Society is the Natural State of Humanity....................................................................................................109 Justice Depends on a Social Contract ...........................................................................................................................110 Hobbes: We Need a Social Contract to Coexist .........................................................................................................110 Locke: The Social Contract Protects Natural Rights..................................................................................................111 The State of Nature: Assumptions and Questions .....................................................................................................113 Rawls: The State of Nature is a Conceptual Tool.......................................................................................................113 Marx and Engels: Justice is Based on Need and Ability ............................................................................................115 Mill: Justice is what Promotes the General Welfare ...................................................................................................116 Okin: Justice is what Promotes Gender Equality .......................................................................................................118 Making Connections: An Ideal Society.........................................................................................................................119 Chapter Ten Review Questions .....................................................................................................................................120 Reflection Essay Questions.................................................................................................................................................122 Chapter One Essay Question.........................................................................................................................................122 Chapter Two Essay Question ........................................................................................................................................122

Page 6 of 125

©2017

www.achievetestprep.com

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy

Chapter Three Essay Question ......................................................................................................................................122 Chapter Four Essay Question ........................................................................................................................................123 Chapter Five Essay Question .........................................................................................................................................123 Chapter Six Essay Question ...........................................................................................................................................123 Chapter Seven Essay Question ......................................................................................................................................123 Chapter Eight Essay Question.......................................................................................................................................124 Chapter Nine Essay Question........................................................................................................................................124 Chapter Ten Essay Question..........................................................................................................................................124 Answer Keys for Chapters 1 - 10 .......................................................................................................................................125

Page 7 of 125

©2017

www.achievetestprep.com

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy

Chapter One: The Nature of Philosophy Learning Objectives After completing Chapter One, you should be able to: 1. Define the nature of philosophy 2. Discuss the process involved in critical thinking 3. Discuss the different types of argument forms 4. Discuss methods of evaluating arguments

5. Discuss the different types of informal fallacies 6. Discuss he different branches of philosophy 7. Discuss problems with philosophy as a science What is Philosophy? Philosophy deals with the most complex, thought-provoking, and profound questions on human life. It attempts to deal with questions that, by their nature, resist simple answers. The foundation of philosophy began in ancient Greece as the mother of all disciplines involving humans and their involvement with their universe. Philosophy’s ultimate goal is to achieve wisdom by looking to apply knowledge and great intelligence to generate creative solutions to challenging problems. Philosophy’s foundation is based on four components, which include wonder, wisdom, truth, and a dynamic process. Philosophy involves six distinct areas of study which includes: metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, logic, aesthetics, and political and social (sciences) philosophy. The application of philosophy stimulates one to penetrate beneath the surface of daily experiences, seeking a comprehensive vision of reality and a desire for synthesis and integration; in a sense, it is “putting all of the pieces together.” The application of philosophy principles allows the individual to apply a rigorous critical and honest process of testing and discussing beliefs, and continually testing ideas and concepts against their opposites with the final objective being to improve the quality of our lives by enlightening and broadening the human mind. Why Study Philosophy? The study of philosophy is thought to encourage the application of the principles and beliefs that help to inspire a person to be more thoughtful, more open-minded, more attuned to the complexities and details of life, and more willing to think critically about themselves and all of life’s important issues. The principles of the foundation of philosophy encourages the individual to be less willing to accept superficial interpretations and simplistic answers by serving as a training guide for the mind, showing the individual how to think in a clear analytical way. It is believed that the study of philosophy enables an individual to communicate more effectively, grow, and make thoughtful and intelligent choices and decisions by providing the conceptual tools required to craft a life inspiring in its challenges and rich in fulfillment. The application of philosophy encourages self-exploration and discovery seeking profound questions about our lives, enabling us to live a life of purpose to fulfill our unique potential and achieve stellar accomplishments. The foundation of philosophy inspires complete liberty of the mind, and freedom from all social, political, and religious prejudices. Philosophy fosters the well-being of the soul by making the individual responsive to the human experience, yet critical of the defective thinking we sometimes encounter.

Page 8 of 125

©2017

www.achievetestprep.com

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy

Having a Philosophy Philosophy is a collection of beliefs used to guide an individual’s thoughts and actions. These beliefs have formed over the years of an individual’s life and they influence the way they see the world and the choices that they make. An individual may not be fully aware of all their beliefs because some may be buried in their unconsciousness; however, they can still influence the individual. An individual’s philosophy of life can contain beliefs that are inaccurate, biased, or destructive. Doing Philosophy (Thinking Philosophically) Thinking philosophically means thinking critically about one’s own beliefs, which ensures they are the most accurate and enlightened beliefs possible. The process involves many advanced forms of thinking which includes critical thinking and logical reasoning. A process that can help foster philosophical thinking is recording one’s thoughts through the use of writing, which acts as a catalyst for intellectual development. The process of writing stimulates the mind by helping the individual shape their thinking and enlarging their understanding of the world. Writing creates a permanent record of an individual’s thinking process at a specific point in time. Further, writing is the relation of word to thought and the creation of new concepts, which is a complex, delicate, and mysterious process unfolding in an individual’s soul. Critical Thinking The process of critical thinking changes qualitatively how a person views the world, processes information, and make decisions. The process of critical thinking means to question, analyze, and evaluate. Critical activities aid us in reaching the best possible conclusions and decisions. Individuals need to engage in constructive criticism, as this may assist them in developing their ability to think critically. Critical thinking requires ongoing practice and reflection. Qualities that characterize critical thinkers are: open-mindedness, knowledgeable, mentally active, insightful, self-aware, creative, and passionate. Critical thinkers actively engage in the learning process and participate in developing their own understanding of the world. The process of critical thinking involves the following key aspects: • State your initial point of view • Define your point of view

• Provide examples of your point of view • Explore the origin of your point of view • State your assumptions • Offer the explanations, arguments, and evidence that support your point of view • Consider the point of views of others • Arrive at a logical conclusion, decision, solution, or prediction • Consider the consequences • Sees knowledge and truth as goals that we are striving to achieve • Challenging journey involves passing through different stages of critical thinking

Page 9 of 125

©2017

www.achievetestprep.com

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy

Stages in Critical Thinking There are many aspects involved in fostering critical thinking in an individual. Critical thinking is clear, reasoned thinking which involves critique. During the process of critical thinking, ideas should be reasoned, well thought-out, and judged. There are many stages involved in the critical thinking process and they are outlined below to help support and foster core critical thinking skills. • The Garden of Eden: See the world in black and white, and right and wrong. Our role is to accept information without question or criticism. • Anything goes: All beliefs are of equal value. We cannot determine which beliefs make more sense than other beliefs. • Thinking critically: Accept that some viewpoints are better than others. This is not because people someone says so but because there are compelling reasons to support these viewpoints. Logical Reasoning Logical reasoning is the process which uses arguments, statements, and premises to define whether a statement is true or false. Logical reasoning seeks to establish the rules of correct reasoning, clear understanding, and valid arguments by engaging in dialogue which involves the systematic exchange of ideas allowing the individual to see issues from various perspectives and develop reasons to support a conclusion. Logical reasoning consists of four areas: arguments, informal fallacies, validity, and soundness. Argument Forms An argument is a form of thinking in which certain statements (reasons or premises) are offered in support of another statement (a conclusion). Reasons or premises are statements that support or justify or make the conclusion more probable. Conclusions are statements that explain, assert, or predict on the basis of the reasons that are offered as evidence for it. Certain key words (cue words) are used to signal that a reason is being offered in support of a conclusion or that a conclusion is being announced on the basis of certain reason. Evaluating Arguments Evaluating arguments involves determining if the argument is valid or invalid and if the argument is sound or unsound; further, it investigates the truth of the reason and the validity of the conclusion. When assessing the truth of an argument, the process involves assessing how true are the supporting reasons that are being used to support a conclusion which involves a complex and ongoing process. Another step in evaluating an argument includes determining if an argument is sound, which looks at assessing if the argument passes the test of both truth and validity. When an argument has a valid structure and truthful reasoning then the argument is said to be sound. When an argument has either false reasons or an invalid structure, it is considered to be unsound. Assessing validity involves investigating the relationship between the reasons and the conclusions. Evaluation of arguments involves four different types if arguments forms which include:

Page 10 of 125

©2017

www.achievetestprep.com

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy

• Valid argument: Reasons support the conclusion so that the conclusion follows from the reasons offered. • Deductive argument: Conclusions follow necessarily from the reasons a person accepts the supporting reason as true; they then accept the conclusion as true (syllogism, modus ponens, modus tollens, and disjunctive syllogism). • Invalid argument: The reasons do not support the conclusions. Since the premises are invalid we cannot ascertain the validity of the conclusion. • Inductive argument: A type of argument that states the conclusion contains a probable truth based on the strength of the premises provided. Inductive arguments work under the assumption that the premises are so logically sound that the likelihood of the conclusion proving false is almost negligent. Informal Fallacies An informal fallacy is an argument whose stated premises may fail to adequately support its proposed conclusion. The problem with an informal fallacy is that it often stems from reasoning that renders the conclusion unpersuasive. In contrast to a formal fallacy of deduction, the error is not a flaw in logic. Unsound arguments are often persuasive because they usually appeal to our emotions and prejudices and often support conclusions that we want to believe are accurate. Three different types of fallacies include: fallacies of false generalization, casual fallacies, and fallacies of relevance. 1. Fallacies of false generalization: Group of fallacies arises from errors in reaching a general conclusion. Attributes obtained from an individual are then applied to the entire group which that individual comes from. There are 3 main ways this occurs: • Hasty generalization: Occurs when people try to reach a general conclusion too quickly, lacking a sufficient number of instances in the sample population to legitimately justify generalization to the target population. • Sweeping generalization: Involves the failure to take into account exceptions to the rule, thereby “sweeping” the exceptions into a larger group. • False dilemma: Also known as the either/or fallacy or the black or white fallacy. This occurs when we are asked to choose between two extreme alternatives without being able to consider additional options. 2. Casual fallacies: Attributing causes to events and situations. • Questionable cause: Someone presents a causal relationship for which no real evidence exists. For example, superstitious beliefs or astrology. • Poc hoc ergo propter hoc: Latin phrase meaning “after this, therefore because of this.” It refers to the situation in which two things occur close together in time and because of their timely connection we assume that one caused the other. • Slippery slope: One undesirable action will inevitably lead to a worse action which will necessarily lead to a worse one still.

Page 11 of 125

©2017

www.achievetestprep.com

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy

3. Fallacies of relevance: Appeal or support to factors that have little or nothing to do with the argument being offered. • Appeal to authority/tradition/bandwagon: Appeal to opinions outside of oneself to justify conclusions rather than basing conclusions on critical analysis. • Appeal to authority: We should agree with a point of view simply because it is endorsed by an authority. • Appeal to tradition: A practice or way of thinking is better or right simply because it is traditional and it has always been done that way. 4. Appeal to emotion: Appeals to various emotions to encourage or manipulate others into agreeing with you (includes pity, fear, and flattery). 5. Appeal to personal attack: This involves ignoring the issues of the argument and focusing instead on the personal qualities of the person making the opposing argument (includes ad hominem- attributes of the man are judged rather than attributes of the issues. This is also thought of as poisoning the well-any water drawn from the opponents well will be treated as undrinkable). 6. Red herring: Also known as the smoke screen and wild goose chase. It involves diverting the audience from the topic by introducing other irrelevant topics as a form of distraction. Branches of Philosophy There are many different branches of and focus of philosophy. Traditionally, there are five main branches of philosophy. The newest branch is political and social philosophy, which has created a sixth area of focus. The branches include: • Metaphysics: The study of the ultimate characteristics of reality or existence. This branch explores issues beyond our physical world, for example, what is the meaning of life beyond death (What is the nature of reality? Does God really exist?). More specifically, it is the study of reality that is beyond the scientific or mathematical realms. The term “metaphysics” itself literally means “beyond the physical.” The metaphysical issues most discussed are the existence of God, the soul, and the afterlife. • Epistemology: the study of the construction of knowledge. Its ultimate goal being to establish a framework that allows us to arrive at an honest and truthful understanding Epistemology deals with the process by which we can know that something is true. Within epistemology, there are two important categories: empiricism and rationalism. Rationalism stresses that the most import element in knowing something is reason. It holds that knowledge is gained primarily through the mind. Rationalism also asserts that we are born with innate ideas that precede any experiences we may have with our physical senses. Empiricism, on the other hand, asserts that all our knowledge comes from our five senses. To use the terminology of the empiricist, John Locke, our minds are a “blank slate” at birth. Thus, knowledge comes from our experiences. This branch involves identifying and developing criteria and methodologies for determining what we know and why we know it (What is truth? Can we ever really know anything?).

Page 12 of 125

©2017

www.achievetestprep.com

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy

• Ethics: Involves the study of moral values and principles. This branch looks at the principles that govern our relationships with other people, the way we should behave, and the rules and standards that we should employ in the choices we make (How should we treat other people? Is there a good life for humans?). Ethics is the study of moral value, right and wrong. Ethics is involved with placing value to personal actions, decisions, and relations. Important ethical issues today include abortion, sexual morality, the death penalty, euthanasia, pornography, and the environment. • Political and social philosophy: Involves the study of social values and political forms of government. This branch explores the various ways in which people should organize and govern themselves. This branch focuses on analyzing the values in which society should be based and the role of social justice and individual rights (What is the nature of justice? What is the most enlightened form of government?). • Aesthetics: Involves the study of beauty and art and analyzes efforts to establish for beauty in all of its various manifestations (What is the nature of beauty? What is art?). • Logic and critical thinking: Involves the study of correct reasoning, clear understanding, and valid arguments. Logic is the study of right reasoning. It is the tool philosophers use to study other philosophical categories. Good logic includes the use of good thinking skills and the avoidance of logic fallacies. Bertrand Russell Bertrand Russell was a British philosopher and known as one of the founders of modern logic. He is credited with advancing the view that all mathematics can be derived from logical premises. Russell believed philosophy was to be studied, not for the sake of any definite answers to its questions. This is because no definite answers serve as a rule known to be true. No, instead, we should study philosophy for the sake of the questions themselves because these questions enlarge our conception of what is possible, enriches our intellectual imagination, and diminishes the dogmatic assurance which closes the mind against speculation. Russell believed that the greatness of the universe which philosophy contemplates also renders the mind great. The mind becomes capable of a union with the universe which constitutes its highest good. The practical man does not understand that the goods of the mind are at least as good as the goods of the body, meaning the practical man recognizes only material needs food for the body but is oblivious to the necessity of providing food for the mind in order to produce a valuable society. Since the study of philosophy is so abstract, Russell recognized our problems with understanding it. Russell believed that one reason philosophy does not provide definite answers to its questions is that as soon as definite knowledge concerning any subject becomes possible, the subject ceases to be called philosophy and becomes a separate science. Another reason why philosophy does not provide definite answers to its questions is that many of its questions must remain insoluble to the human intellect unless its powers become of quite a different order from what they are now.

Page 13 of 125

©2017

www.achievetestprep.com

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy

Chapter One Definitions Aesthetics

The study of beauty, art, and taste.

A form of thinking in which certain statements (reasons) are offered in support of another statement (a conclusion). A form of inductive argument in which one event is claimed to be the result of the occurrence of another event. A statement that explains, asserts, or predicts on the basis of statements (known as reasons or premises) that are offered as evidence for it. An argument form in which one reasons from premises that are known or assumed to be true to a conclusion that follows necessarily from these premises. A form inductive reasoning in which a general statement is made about an entire group (the target population) based on observing some members of the group (the sample population). Unsound arguments that are often persuasive because they usually appeal to our emotions and prejudices and because they often support conclusions that we want to believe are accurate. A conclusion can be assumed true based off of the strength of its premise which was either known or assumed to be true. The conclusion is supported by the premise by it does not follow from them. An argument in which the reasons do not support the conclusion so that the conclusion does not follow from the reasons offered. The study of the construction of knowledge. The study of moral values and principles.

Argument

Causal reasoning

Conclusion

Deductive argument

Empirical generalization

Epistemology

Ethics

Fallacies

Inductive argument

Invalid argument

Logic and critical thinking

The study of correct reasoning, clear understanding, and valid arguments.

Metaphysics

The study of the ultimate characteristics of reality or existence.

Political and social philosophy

The study of social values and political forms of government.

Statements used to support, justify, or increase the probability of truthfulness of another statement (known as a conclusion).

Reasons or premises

Sound argument

An argument that has both true reasons and a valid structure.

Syllogism

An argument form that consists of two premises (major and minor) that

Page 14 of 125

©2017

www.achievetestprep.com

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy

lead the analyst to a logical conclusion.

Unsound argument

An argument that has either false reasons or an invalid structure.

An argument in which the conclusion follows the reasons offered. The reasons offered are used to support the conclusion.

Valid argument

Chapter One Review Questions 1. Which of the following is one of the branches of philosophy? a. Metaphysics b. Argument c. Fallacies d. Casual reasoning

5. What is the argument form that consists of two premises and a conclusion? a. Deductive argument b. Sound argument c. Unsound argument d. Syllogism 6. What is the branch if philosophy that studies social values and political forms of government? a. Epistemology b. Political and social philosophy c. Aesthetics d. Ethics 7. What term is used to define the love and pursuit of wisdom? a. Ethics b. Humanities c. Philosophy d. Reasoning 8. To do philosophy effectively requires developing the attributes of what? a. Deductive reasoning b. Argument skills c. Cognitive skills d. Critical thinking 9. What is the term used to describe unsound arguments that are often persuasive because they usually appeal

2. The study of moral values and principles is known as: a. Aesthetics b. Ethics c. Epistemology d. Aesthetics

3. The study of philosophy that involves the study of ultimate character tics of reality or existence is known as: a. Logic and critical thinking b. Metaphysics c. Ethics d. Political and social philosophy 4. What is known as a form of thinking in which certain statements are offered in support of another statement? a. Conclusion b. Reason c. Argument d. Syllogism

Page 15 of 125

©2017

www.achievetestprep.com

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy

to our emotions and prejudices and often support conclusions we want to believe are accurate? a. Reasoning b. Generalization c. Fallacies d. Arguments

10. The branch of philosophy that studies beauty and art is known as _______. a. Ethics b. Aesthetics c. Metaphysics d. Epistemology

Answer Key on Page 125

Page 16 of 125

©2017

www.achievetestprep.com

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy

Chapter Two: What is the Philosopher’s Way? Learning Objectives After completing Chapter Two, you should be able to: 1. Define the birth of philosophy

2. Discuss the Socratic Method as a theory in philosophy 3. Discuss Socrates central concern which discusses the soul 4. Discuss the trial and death of Socrates 5. Discuss the legend of Socrates and his impact on philosophy 6. Discuss Plato’s view on Socrates regarding his contribution to philosophy through his work known asL The Apology Birth of Philosophy Socrates was one of the Greek gods that helped sow the seeds for the birth of Western philosophy. His teachings, along with Greek culture religious stories, formed a rich and colorful array of divine characters including the Greek gods and goddesses such as Zeus, Hera, Hercules, and Apollo. These gods and goddesses were portrayed as having complex and dramatic lives filled with conflict, lust, betrayal, violence, love, competition, and passion. These religious stories became an integral part of the culture that was institutionalized in temples, rituals, sacred objects, and the god became a central part of the culture’s belief system. These religious stories ended up profoundly shaping the way the people viewed themselves and their world. The religious stories of the ancient Greek culture was made unique by the themes and stories of the gods and their dealing with one another, they embodied the core values that helped shape the Greek culture. Homer, the author of The Iliad and The Odyssey , was a major influence on Greek culture. His classic influential story of The Iliad focuses on an account of living in the world of war and The Odyssey is about the importance of the human world and the one that people create. These are just two of the influential stories from the ancient Greek culture that has helped shape philosophy into a science. The essence of philosophy is to question the authenticity and truth of these cultural stories and myths, which often finds itself at odds with the prevailing culture. Philosophy was permitted in ancient Greece and encouraged to thrive through independence of thought, strength of character, development of the intellect, and seeking order and clarity. The unique values and worldview embodied in Greek religion and myths helped to create the condition for the birth of philosophy in Greece embodied in a group of individuals called the pre-Socratic philosophers (before Socrates). They served as intellectual catalysts and laid the foundation for Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and the formal birth of Western philosophy. The Socratic Method The Socratic Method is named after the classical Greek philosopher Socrates. It is a form of inquiry and discussion between individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking

Page 17 of 125

©2017

www.achievetestprep.com