N109: Foundations in Nursing Practice

N109: Foundations in Nursing Practice Study Guide • Ear infections: Due to the structure of the toddler's ear and Eustachian tubes, ear infections are common in this age group. • Upper respiratory infections: Toddlers often experience the common cold, which can affect the child’s ears, nose, throat, and sinuses. • Dental cavities: Dental cavities are often caused by putting a toddler to bed with a bottle, or from eating excessive sweets. The child should begin a regular routine of teeth brushing. Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks During this period, the developmental tasks include learning to walk and talk, bowel and bladder control, and learning language. Freud’s Psychosocial Development Anal stage: The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is on eliminating and retaining feces. According to Freud, through society’s pressure, mainly via parents, the child has to learn to control anal stimulation. Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Expected outcome: Autonomy vs. shame/doubt During early childhood, the individual learns to master skills. She will learn to walk, talk, and feed herself, and will develop finer motor skills and toilet training. During this stage, the individual has the opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy as she gains more control over her body and acquires new skills, learning right from wrong. It is also during this stage, however, that the child can be very vulnerable. If she is shamed in the process of learning important skills, the child may feel great shame and doubt of her capabilities, suffering low self-esteem as a result. The most significant relationships are with parents or primary caregivers. People at this developmental stage can learn simple skills through imitation and repetition, but teaching must still include the parent or caregiver. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Pre-conceptual or pre-operational phase: As the child learns to talk and communicate with others, he begins to use symbols to represent objects. Early in this stage, he also personifies objects. He takes in information and then changes it in his mind to fit his ideas. Teaching must take into account the child’s vivid fantasies and undeveloped sense of time. To a child this age, everything is about “me.” Using neutral words, body outlines, and equipment a child can touch gives him an active role in learning. Kohlberg’s Moral Development Pre-conventional level (to 9 years old): Morality is defined as obeying rules and avoiding negative consequences. Children in this stage see rules set, typically by parents, as defining moral law. Whatever satisfies the child’s needs is seen as good and moral. Fowler’s Spiritual Development Intuitive-projective faith: Here, the child is egocentric. In this stage, the child’s imagination is formed. The child imitates the faith of his parents without understanding the meaning. Prayers are learned when parents praise the child for learning them.

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