Anatomy & Physiology I and II

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ACHIEVE TEST PREP Anatomy & Physiology I & II Study Guide 3rd Edition 4/8/2018

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Acknowledgements We would like to thank Chrystal Harris for their patience, support, and expertise in contributing to this study guide; Christina Wulff and Shannon Allen for their invaluable efforts in reading and editing the text. We would also like to thank those at Achieve Test Prep whose hard work and dedication to fulfilling this project did not go unnoticed. Lastly, we would like to thank the Achieve Test prep students who have contributed to the growth of these materials over the years. Copyright © 2018 by Achieve Test Prep All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever without the express written permission of the publisher except for the use of brief quotations in a book review. Printed in the United States of America First Printing, 2010 ISBN 0-9000000-0-0 Achieve Test Prep PO Box 10188 #29831 Newark, NJ 07101-3188 Tel: 888.900.8380 Visit the Achieve Test Prep website at http://www.achievetestprep.com/student

Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide ©2018 Achieve Test Prep Page 3 of 367 Tab le of Contents Chapter 1: Basic Anatomical Terminology................................................................................................................... 12 1.1 Superficial Anatomy................................................................................................................................................... 13 1.2 Sectional Anatomy ...................................................................................................................................................... 15 1.3 Chapter One Review................................................................................................................................................... 18 Chapter 2: General Organization of the Body ............................................................................................................. 19 2.1 Hierarchy of Organization ....................................................................................................................................... 19 2.2 General Breakdown of Organ Systems............................................................................................................... 20 2.3 Maintenance of the Internal Environment....................................................................................................... 21 2.4 Chapter Two Review.................................................................................................................................................. 23 2.5 Chapter Two Practice Exam.................................................................................................................................... 24 Chapter 3: Cellular Level of Organization..................................................................................................................... 25 3.1 Cell Structure................................................................................................................................................................. 25 3.2 Material Transport ..................................................................................................................................................... 26 3.3 Cell Life Cycle ................................................................................................................................................................ 31 3.4 Chapter Three Review............................................................................................................................................... 32 3.5 Chapter Three Practice Exam ................................................................................................................................ 35 Chapter 4: The Tissue Level of Organization .............................................................................................................. 36 4.1 Epithelial Tissue........................................................................................................................................................... 36 4.2 Connective Tissue ....................................................................................................................................................... 39 4.3 Muscle Tissue................................................................................................................................................................ 41 4.4 Neural Tissue ................................................................................................................................................................ 43 4.5 Tissue Repair................................................................................................................................................................. 43 4.6 Chapter Four Review ................................................................................................................................................. 44 4.7 Chapter Four Practice Exam................................................................................................................................... 48 Chapter 5: The Chemical Level of Organization......................................................................................................... 49 5.1 Atoms................................................................................................................................................................................ 49 5.2 Chemical Bonding ....................................................................................................................................................... 50 5.3 Types of Chemical Reactions.................................................................................................................................. 52 5.4 Electrolytes and Body Fluids.................................................................................................................................. 52 5.5 Carbohydrates .............................................................................................................................................................. 53 5.6 Lipids ................................................................................................................................................................................ 54

Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide ©2018 Achieve Test Prep Page 4 of 367 5.7 Proteins............................................................................................................................................................................ 54 5.8 DNA and RNA ................................................................................................................................................................ 56 5.9 ATP .................................................................................................................................................................................... 57 5.10 Chapter Five Review ............................................................................................................................................... 58 5.11 Chapter Five Practice Exam ................................................................................................................................. 61 Chapter 6: The Integumentary System .......................................................................................................................... 62 6.1 The Cutaneous Membrane ...................................................................................................................................... 63 6.2 Accessory Structures ................................................................................................................................................. 66 6.3 Integumentary Injury and Repair ........................................................................................................................ 69 6.4 Burns and Grafts .......................................................................................................................................................... 70 6.5 Aging ................................................................................................................................................................................. 70 6.6 Chapter Six Review..................................................................................................................................................... 71 6.7 Chapter Six Practice Exam....................................................................................................................................... 74 Chapter 7: Bone and Osseous Tissue .............................................................................................................................. 75 7.1 Bone Classification...................................................................................................................................................... 75 7.2 Bone Structure.............................................................................................................................................................. 75 7.3 Bone Composition....................................................................................................................................................... 76 7.4 Bone Types..................................................................................................................................................................... 78 7.5 Bone Parts ...................................................................................................................................................................... 78 7.6 Bone Formation and Growth.................................................................................................................................. 78 7.7 Fractures ......................................................................................................................................................................... 81 7.8 Aging ................................................................................................................................................................................. 81 7.9 Chapter Seven Review............................................................................................................................................... 82 7.10 Chapter Seven Practice Exam.............................................................................................................................. 84 Chapter 8: The Skeletal System......................................................................................................................................... 85 8.1 Axial Skeleton................................................................................................................................................................ 85 8.2 Appendicular Skeleton.............................................................................................................................................. 89 8.3 Chapter Eight Review ................................................................................................................................................ 93 8.4 Chapter Eight Practice Exam.................................................................................................................................. 96 Chapter 9: Joints and Articulations ................................................................................................................................. 97 9.1 Classification of Joints ............................................................................................................................................... 97 9.2 Movement of Joints..................................................................................................................................................... 99

Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide ©2018 Achieve Test Prep Page 5 of 367 9.3 Types of Synovial Joints..........................................................................................................................................100 9.4 Intervertebral Discs .................................................................................................................................................101 9.5 Intervertebral Ligaments.......................................................................................................................................101 9.6 Chapter Nine Review ...............................................................................................................................................102 9.7 Chapter Nine Practice Exam .................................................................................................................................104 Chapter 10: Muscle Tissue ................................................................................................................................................105 10.1 Skeletal Muscle ........................................................................................................................................................105 10.2 Cardiac Muscle Tissue Structural Characteristics ....................................................................................111 10.3 Smooth Muscle Tissue ..........................................................................................................................................111 10.5 Chapter Ten Practice Exam ................................................................................................................................116 Chapter 11: The Muscular System .................................................................................................................................118 11.1 Muscle Classification .............................................................................................................................................118 11.2 Levers ..........................................................................................................................................................................119 11.3 Origins and Insertions ..........................................................................................................................................119 11.4 Accessory Muscles..................................................................................................................................................119 11.5 Skeletal Muscle Names .........................................................................................................................................119 11.6 Aging ............................................................................................................................................................................120 11.7 Chapter Eleven Review ........................................................................................................................................121 11.8 Chapter Eleven Practice Exam ..........................................................................................................................123 Chapter 12: Structural Divisions of The Nervous System: Brain and Cranial Nerves.............................124 12.1 Brain Regions and Landmarks..........................................................................................................................125 12.2 Embryology of the Brain......................................................................................................................................126 12.3 Ventricles of the Brain..........................................................................................................................................126 12.4 Protection and Support of the Brain ..............................................................................................................127 12.5 The Blood Supply to the Brain ..........................................................................................................................128 12.6 The Cerebrum ..........................................................................................................................................................129 12.7 The Basal Nuclei......................................................................................................................................................129 12.8 Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex ........................................................................................................130 12.9 Association Areas ...................................................................................................................................................130 12.10 Integrative Centers..............................................................................................................................................131 12.11 Brain Functions.....................................................................................................................................................131 12.12 The Limbic System ..............................................................................................................................................135

Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide ©2018 Achieve Test Prep Page 6 of 367 12.13 The Electroencephalogram (EEG) ................................................................................................................135 12.14 Cranial Nerves .......................................................................................................................................................136 12.15 Chapter Twelve Review ....................................................................................................................................138 12.16 Chapter Twelve Practice Exam ......................................................................................................................142 Chapter 13: Neural Tissue.................................................................................................................................................143 13.1 Divisions of the Nervous System Structural ...............................................................................................143 13.2 Neurons.......................................................................................................................................................................144 13.3 Structure.....................................................................................................................................................................144 13.4 Structural Classification.......................................................................................................................................145 13.5 Functional Classification .....................................................................................................................................146 13.6 Neuroglia....................................................................................................................................................................147 13.7 Transmembrane Potential..................................................................................................................................148 13.8 Action Potential .......................................................................................................................................................151 13.9 Synapses .....................................................................................................................................................................153 13.10 Neurotransmitters...............................................................................................................................................154 13.11 Neuromodulators.................................................................................................................................................154 13.12 Postsynaptic Potentials .....................................................................................................................................155 13.13 Chapter Thirteen Review .................................................................................................................................155 13.14 Chapter Thirteen Practice Exam ...................................................................................................................160 Chapter 14: Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves ...............................................................................................................161 14.1 Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord...................................................................................................................161 14.2 Spinal Meninges ......................................................................................................................................................163 14.3 Gray and White Matter.........................................................................................................................................164 14.4 Anatomy of Spinal Nerves...................................................................................................................................164 14.5 Neuronal Pools.........................................................................................................................................................165 14.6 Reflexes .......................................................................................................................................................................165 14.7 Reinforcement and Inhibition...........................................................................................................................168 14.8 Chapter Fourteen Review ...................................................................................................................................169 14.9 Chapter Fourteen Practice Exam..................................................................................................................172 Chapter 15: Functional Divisions of the Nervous System: Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System .......................................................................................................................................................................................................173 15.1 The Somatic Nervous System............................................................................................................................173

Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide ©2018 Achieve Test Prep Page 7 of 367 15.2 Levels of Processing and Motor Control.......................................................................................................174 15.3 The Autonomic Nervous System......................................................................................................................175 15.4 Higher Order Functions .......................................................................................................................................176 15.5 Aging ............................................................................................................................................................................178 15.6 Chapter Fifteen Review........................................................................................................................................179 15.7 Chapter Fifteen Practice Exam..........................................................................................................................183 Chapter 16: Senses................................................................................................................................................................184 16.1 Sensory Receptors..................................................................................................................................................184 16.2 General Sensory Receptors ................................................................................................................................186 16.3 Somatic Sensory Pathways.................................................................................................................................187 16.4 Visceral Sensory Pathways.................................................................................................................................188 16.5 Olfaction......................................................................................................................................................................188 16.6 Gustation ....................................................................................................................................................................188 16.7 Sight..............................................................................................................................................................................189 16.8 Hearing and Balance .............................................................................................................................................196 16.9 Chapter Sixteen Review.......................................................................................................................................200 16.10 Chapter Sixteen Practice Exam ......................................................................................................................205 Chapter 17: The Endocrine System...............................................................................................................................206 17.1 Hormones...................................................................................................................................................................206 17.2 Pituitary Gland.........................................................................................................................................................209 17.3 Thyroid Gland ..........................................................................................................................................................211 17.4 Parathyroid Glands ................................................................................................................................................211 17.5 Suprarenal Glands ..................................................................................................................................................211 17.6 The Pineal Gland .....................................................................................................................................................213 17.7 Pancreas .....................................................................................................................................................................213 17.8 Secondary Endocrine Organs ............................................................................................................................213 17.9 Cell Response to Hormones ...............................................................................................................................215 17.10 Role of Hormones in Growth ..........................................................................................................................215 17.11 The Alarm Phase ..................................................................................................................................................216 17.12 The Effects of Hormones on Behavior ........................................................................................................216 17.13 Aging and Hormone Production....................................................................................................................216 17.14 Chapter Seventeen Review ..............................................................................................................................217

Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide ©2018 Achieve Test Prep Page 8 of 367 17.15 Chapter Seventeen Practice Exam................................................................................................................221 Chapter 18: Blood .................................................................................................................................................................222 18.1 Blood ............................................................................................................................................................................222 18.2 Characteristics of Blood.......................................................................................................................................222 18.3 Blood Composition.................................................................................................................................................222 18.4 Red Blood Cells ........................................................................................................................................................224 18.5 White Blood Cells....................................................................................................................................................227 18.6 Platelets ......................................................................................................................................................................229 18.7 Hemostasis ................................................................................................................................................................230 18.8 Chapter Eighteen Review....................................................................................................................................233 18.9 Chapter Eighteen Practice Exam......................................................................................................................236 Chapter 19: The Heart.........................................................................................................................................................238 19.1 An Introduction to the Cardiovascular System..........................................................................................238 19.2 The Pericardium .....................................................................................................................................................238 19.3 Superficial Anatomy of the Heart ....................................................................................................................238 19.4 Internal Anatomy and Organization...............................................................................................................240 19.5 The Blood Supply to the Heart..........................................................................................................................242 19.6 Cardiac Physiology.................................................................................................................................................243 19.7 The Electrocardiogram ........................................................................................................................................245 19.8 The Action Potential in Cardiac Muscle Cells .............................................................................................245 19.9 Cardiac Cycle.............................................................................................................................................................246 19.10 Heart Sounds..........................................................................................................................................................247 19.11 Hormones................................................................................................................................................................248 19.12 Chapter Nineteen Review.................................................................................................................................250 19.13 Chapter Nineteen Practice Exam ..................................................................................................................253 Chapter 20: Blood Vessels and Circulation ................................................................................................................254 20.1 Blood Vessels............................................................................................................................................................254 20.2 Arteries .......................................................................................................................................................................255 20.3 Capillaries ..................................................................................................................................................................256 20.4 Vasomotion ...............................................................................................................................................................258 20.5 Veins.............................................................................................................................................................................260 20.6 Venous Valves ..........................................................................................................................................................260

Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide ©2018 Achieve Test Prep Page 9 of 367 20.7 The Distribution of Blood....................................................................................................................................260 20.8 Blood Pressure.........................................................................................................................................................261 20.9 Autoregulation, Neural Mechanisms, and Endocrine Responses ......................................................264 20.10 Vascular Supply to Special Regions..............................................................................................................266 20.11 Systemic Arteries .................................................................................................................................................268 20.12 Systemic Veins.......................................................................................................................................................271 20.13 The Hepatic Portal System...............................................................................................................................272 20.14 Placental Blood Supply ......................................................................................................................................272 20.15 Fetal Circulation in the Heart and Great Vessels....................................................................................273 20.16 Aging..........................................................................................................................................................................273 20.17 Chapter Twenty Review....................................................................................................................................273 20.18 Chapter Twenty Practice Exam......................................................................................................................278 Chapter 21: The Lymphatic System ..............................................................................................................................279 21.1 Anatomy .....................................................................................................................................................................279 21.2 Lymphatic Vessels..................................................................................................................................................279 21.3 Lymphocytes.............................................................................................................................................................280 21.4 Lymphocyte Production ......................................................................................................................................280 21.5 Lymphoid Tissues...................................................................................................................................................280 21.6 Lymph Flow ..............................................................................................................................................................281 21.7 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses.................................................................................................283 21.8 Properties of Immunity........................................................................................................................................286 21.9 Hormones of the Immune System...................................................................................................................288 21.10 Immune Disorders...............................................................................................................................................289 21.11 Aging..........................................................................................................................................................................289 21.12 Chapter Twenty-One Review..........................................................................................................................289 21.13 Chapter Twenty-One Practice Exam............................................................................................................294 Chapter 22: Respiratory System.....................................................................................................................................295 22.1 Functions of the Respiratory System.............................................................................................................295 22.2 Organization of the Respiratory System.......................................................................................................296 22.3 Upper Respiratory System .................................................................................................................................296 22.4 Lower Respiratory System .................................................................................................................................298 22.5 Respiration ................................................................................................................................................................301

Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide ©2018 Achieve Test Prep Page 10 of 367 22.6 The Gas Laws ............................................................................................................................................................305 22.7 The Respiratory Centers of the Brain ............................................................................................................306 22.8 Aging ............................................................................................................................................................................307 22.9 Chapter Twenty-Two Review............................................................................................................................307 22.10 Chapter Twenty-Two Practice Exam...........................................................................................................312 Chapter 23: The Digestive System .................................................................................................................................313 23.1 Functions of the Digestive System ..................................................................................................................313 23.2 The Digestive Organs and the Peritoneum..................................................................................................313 23.3 The Movement of Digestive Materials ...........................................................................................................314 23.4 Control of Digestive Functions..........................................................................................................................315 23.5 The Oral Cavity ........................................................................................................................................................315 23.6 The Pharynx ..............................................................................................................................................................317 23.7 The Esophagus.........................................................................................................................................................317 23.8 Stomach ......................................................................................................................................................................319 23.9 The Small Intestine ................................................................................................................................................320 23.10 Large Intestines ....................................................................................................................................................320 23.11 The Rectum.............................................................................................................................................................320 23.12 Secondary Digestive Organs............................................................................................................................321 23.13 Digestion..................................................................................................................................................................322 23.14 Nutrition ..................................................................................................................................................................323 23.15 Aging..........................................................................................................................................................................323 23.16 Chapter Twenty-Three Review......................................................................................................................324 23.17 Chapter Twenty-Three Practice Exam........................................................................................................329 Chapter 24: The Urinary System ....................................................................................................................................330 24.1 The Kidneys...............................................................................................................................................................330 24.2 Internal Structure of Kidneys............................................................................................................................331 24.3 Tubular Transport Factors .................................................................................................................................333 24.4 Transport of Specific Substances.....................................................................................................................333 24.5 Diuresis .......................................................................................................................................................................334 24.6 Hormonal Involvement ........................................................................................................................................334 24.7 Aging ............................................................................................................................................................................335 24.8 Chapter Twenty-Four Review...........................................................................................................................335

Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide ©2018 Achieve Test Prep Page 11 of 367 24.9 Chapter Twenty-Four Practice Exam.............................................................................................................336 Chapter 25: The Reproductive System ........................................................................................................................337 25.1 Male Reproductive System.................................................................................................................................337 25.2 Spermatogenesis.....................................................................................................................................................339 25.3 The Male Reproductive Tract............................................................................................................................340 25.4 Hormones and Male Reproductive Function..............................................................................................342 25.6 The Uterus .................................................................................................................................................................345 25.7 Hormones and the Female Reproductive Cycle ........................................................................................347 25.8 Sexual Function .......................................................................................................................................................348 25.9 Aging ............................................................................................................................................................................349 25.10 Chapter Twenty-Five Review .........................................................................................................................349 25.11 Chapter Twenty-Five Practice Exam ...........................................................................................................352 Chapter 26: Development and Inheritance................................................................................................................353 26.1 Prenatal.......................................................................................................................................................................353 26.2 Postnatal.....................................................................................................................................................................356 26.3 Genetics and Inheritance.....................................................................................................................................357 26.4 Chapter Twenty-Six Review...............................................................................................................................360 26. 5 Chapter Twenty-Five Practice Exam.............................................................................................................364 Answer Keys............................................................................................................................................................................365

Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide

Chapter 1: Basic Anatomical Terminology Human anatomy is the study of the body, its processes, and composition. For anatomists and medical professionals, knowledge of anatomical terminology is important for effective communication, accuracy of diagnosis and treatment, and furthering research and exploration of the body.

©2018 Achieve Test Prep Page 12 of 367 is the study of the functions of the human body. It is based on cell physiology, the study of the functions of cells. Organ physiology studies the physiology of specific organs. Systemic physiology considers all aspects of the functioning of specific organ systems. Pathological anatomy (pathology) studies the effects of diseases on organ or system functions. Anatomy Gross (macroscopic) anatomy focuses on features that are visible without a microscope. This field includes surface anatomy, regional anatomy, and systemic anatomy. In developmental anatomy , we examine the changes in form that occur between conception and physical maturity. Embryology studies the processes that occur during the first eight weeks of development. Clinical anatomy concentrates on the anatomy relevant to the practice of medicine. The limits of microscopic anatomy are established by the equipment used. Cytology analyzes the internal structure of individual cells. Histology examines groups of cells that perform specific functions as tissues. Tissues combine to form organs , which are anatomical units with multiple functions. Human physiology