Introduction to Philosophy

Achieve Test Prep: Philosophy

Classical Theories of Society: Confucius, Plato, and Aristotle Nearly 100 years before Plato and Aristotle laid the foundation for Western thought, Confucius developed an enlightened society based on virtue and social order that was destined to have a dominate effect on Chinese culture for centuries to come. Confucius was a Chinese philosopher and was esteemed as the Greatest Master, and his teachings were aimed at bringing harmony to society through an emphasis on virtue. Confucius’s ideas were a direct response to the social conditions of his time, a period dominated by political confusion that would eventually lead to the period of the warring states. He was convinced that the only path out of this violent and chaotic state was by establishing a social order based on commitment to humanity or benevolence, the conscientious practice of social customs and the widespread adherence to moral principles. As a teacher, Confucius tried to effect political harmony by cultivating moral harmony within each individual. Philosophically, Confucius can be characterized as ethical humanism. Ethical humanism is an ethical perspective based not on religion but on the belief that human intelligence is capable or promoting human welfare and dignity in a way that conforms to our essential human nature. To fully realize our enlightened human nature, we must develop virtue, or ren, which is a human principle rooted in empathy and feeling for others. The Chinese character for ren is composed of “two” and “man” symbolizing the close relationship between men. Virtue should be our ultimate guiding principle. Confucius believed that this pure and all-encompassing virtues the key to inner peace, harmonious relationships, and enlightened social orders. The heart of this virtue is reciprocity, the principle that we should treat others the same way we wish to be treated. Becoming virtuous requires self-restraint and a commitment to living our lives according to zhong-yong, the Golden Mean, which is a state of harmony achieved through the practice of virtue. This has been translated as moderation, normality, and universal moral law. The literal meaning is centrality and universality which are generally equated with equilibrium and harmony. The Golden Mean concept is explored in The Doctrine of the Mean, a text some believe was written by Confucius’s grandson which discusses the practice of virtue as a total commitment to a life of benevolent generosity, equilibrium, and harmony, and conscientious self- restraint in all dimensions of ourselves. Confucius also believed that achieving our full humanity entails following li, the rules of propriety or moral customs of one’s society that provide specific guidance. Li includes all of the rites, customs, moral precepts, conventions, etiquette, and good manners of society and by mastering and practicing li, all human relationships are enhanced in a benevolent way, a state which ultimately results in a harmonious society based on good an orderly government. Confucius believed that an ideal state could only be achieved by a commitment to the principles by virtue, both by the leaders and the citizens, achieving our full humanity entails following the rules of propriety.

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