Anatomy & Physiology

Anatomy & Physiology I & II Study Guide 3rd Edition 11/26/2018

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Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide

Copyright © 2018 by Achieve

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Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide of 368 Table of Contents Chapter 1: Basic A a omical Terminology .................................................................................................................................... 12 1.1 Superficial Anatomy ................................................................................................................................................................... 13 1.2 Sectional Anatomy....................................................................................................................................................................... 15 1.3 Chapter One Review ................................................................................................................................................................... 18 Chapter 2: General Organization of the Body............................................................................................................................... 19 2.1 Hierarchy of Organization........................................................................................................................................................ 19 2.2 General Breakdown of Organ Systems ............................................................................................................................... 20 2.3 Maintenance of the Internal Environment........................................................................................................................ 21 2.4 Chapter Two Review .................................................................................................................................................................. 23 2.5 Chapter Two Practice Exam .................................................................................................................................................... 24 Chapter 3: Cellular Level of Organization...................................................................................................................................... 25 3.1 Cell Structure................................................................................................................................................................................. 25 3.2 Material Transport...................................................................................................................................................................... 26 3.3 Cell Life Cycle................................................................................................................................................................................. 31 3.4 Chapter Three Review ............................................................................................................................................................... 32 3.5 Chapter Three Practice Exam ................................................................................................................................................. 35 Chapter 4: The Tissue Level of Organization................................................................................................................................ 36 4.1 Epithelial Tissue........................................................................................................................................................................... 36 4.2 Connective Tissue........................................................................................................................................................................ 39 4.3 Muscle Tissue ................................................................................................................................................................................ 41 4.4 Neural Tissue................................................................................................................................................................................. 43 4.5 Tissue Repair ................................................................................................................................................................................. 43 4.6 Chapter Four Review.................................................................................................................................................................. 44 4.7 Chapter Four Practice Exam.................................................................................................................................................... 48 Chapter 5: The Chemical Level of Organization .......................................................................................................................... 49 5.1 Atoms................................................................................................................................................................................................ 49 5.2 Chemical Bonding........................................................................................................................................................................ 50 5.3 Types of Chemical Reactions................................................................................................................................................... 52 5.4 Electrolytes and Body Fluids .................................................................................................................................................. 52 5.5 Carbohydrates............................................................................................................................................................................... 53 5.6 Lipids ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 54 5.7 Proteins............................................................................................................................................................................................ 54 ©2018 Achieve Page 3

Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide of 368 5.8 DNA and RNA................................................................................................................................................................................. 56 5.9 ATP..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 57 5.10 Chapter Five Review................................................................................................................................................................ 58 5.11 Chapter Five Practice Exam .................................................................................................................................................. 61 Chapter 6: The Integumentary System ........................................................................................................................................... 62 6.1 The Cutaneous Membrane ....................................................................................................................................................... 63 6.2 Accessory Structures.................................................................................................................................................................. 66 6.3 Integumentary Injury and Repair ......................................................................................................................................... 69 6.4 Burns and Grafts .......................................................................................................................................................................... 70 6.5 Aging ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 70 6.6 Chapter Six Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 71 6.7 Chapter Six Practice Exam ....................................................................................................................................................... 74 Chapter 7: Bone and Osseous Tissue ............................................................................................................................................... 75 7.1 Bone Classification ...................................................................................................................................................................... 75 7.2 Bone Structure .............................................................................................................................................................................. 76 7.3 Bone Composition ....................................................................................................................................................................... 76 7.4 Bone Types ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 78 7.5 Bone Parts....................................................................................................................................................................................... 78 7.6 Bone Formation and Growth .................................................................................................................................................. 78 7.7 Fractures ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 81 7.8 Aging ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 81 7.9 Chapter Seven Review ............................................................................................................................................................... 82 7.10 Chapter Seven Practice Exam............................................................................................................................................... 84 Chapter 8: The Skeletal System.......................................................................................................................................................... 85 8.1 Axial Skeleton................................................................................................................................................................................ 85 8.2 Appendicular Skeleton .............................................................................................................................................................. 89 8.3 Chapter Eight Review................................................................................................................................................................. 93 8.4 Chapter Eight Practice Exam................................................................................................................................................... 96 Chapter 9: Joints and Articulations................................................................................................................................................... 97 9.1 Classification of Joints................................................................................................................................................................ 97 9.2 Movement of Joints ..................................................................................................................................................................... 99 9.3 Types of Synovial Joints ..........................................................................................................................................................100 9.4 Intervertebral Discs ..................................................................................................................................................................101 9.5 Intervertebral Ligaments .......................................................................................................................................................101 ©2018 Achieve Page 4

Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide of 368 9.6 Chapter Nine Review................................................................................................................................................................102 9.7 Chapter Nine Practice Exam..................................................................................................................................................104 Chapter 10: Muscle Tissue .................................................................................................................................................................105 10.1 Skeletal Muscle.........................................................................................................................................................................105 10.2 Cardiac Muscle Tissue Structural Characteristics .....................................................................................................111 10.3 Smooth Muscle Tissue...........................................................................................................................................................111 10.4 Chapter Ten Review...............................................................................................................................................................113 10.5 Chapter Ten Practice Exam.................................................................................................................................................116 Chapter 11: The Muscular System ..................................................................................................................................................118 11.1 Muscle Classification..............................................................................................................................................................118 11.2 Levers...........................................................................................................................................................................................119 11.3 Origins and Insertions...........................................................................................................................................................119 11.4 Accessory Muscles ..................................................................................................................................................................119 11.5 Skeletal Muscle Names..........................................................................................................................................................119 11.6 Aging.............................................................................................................................................................................................120 11.7 Chapter Eleven Review.........................................................................................................................................................121 11.8 Chapter Eleven Practice Exam...........................................................................................................................................123 Chapter 12: Structural Divisions of The Nervous System: Brain and Cranial Nerves ...............................................124 12.1 Brain Regions and Landmarks...........................................................................................................................................125 12.2 Embryology of the Brain ......................................................................................................................................................126 12.3 Ventricles of the Brain...........................................................................................................................................................126 12.4 Protection and Support of the Brain ...............................................................................................................................127 12.5 The Blood Supply to the Brain...........................................................................................................................................128 12.6 The Cerebrum...........................................................................................................................................................................129 12.7 The Basal Nuclei ......................................................................................................................................................................129 12.8 Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex .........................................................................................................................130 12.9 Association Areas....................................................................................................................................................................130 12.10 Integrative Centers ..............................................................................................................................................................131 12.11 Brain Functions .....................................................................................................................................................................131 12.12 The Limbic System...............................................................................................................................................................135 12.13 The Electroencephalogram (EEG) .................................................................................................................................135 12.14 Cranial Nerves........................................................................................................................................................................136 12.15 Chapter Twelve Review .....................................................................................................................................................138 12.16 Chapter Twelve Practice Exam .......................................................................................................................................142 ©2018 Achieve Page 5

Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide of 368 Chapter 13: Neural Tissue..................................................................................................................................................................143 13.1 Divisions of the Nervous System Structural ................................................................................................................143 13.2 Neurons.......................................................................................................................................................................................144 13.3 Structure .....................................................................................................................................................................................144 13.4 Structural Classification .......................................................................................................................................................145 13.5 Functional Classification ......................................................................................................................................................146 13.6 Neuroglia ....................................................................................................................................................................................147 13.7 Transmembrane Potential ..................................................................................................................................................148 13.8 Action Potential .......................................................................................................................................................................151 13.9 Synapses .....................................................................................................................................................................................153 13.10 Neurotransmitters ...............................................................................................................................................................154 13.11 Neuromodulators .................................................................................................................................................................154 13.12 Postsynaptic Potentials......................................................................................................................................................155 13.13 Chapter Thirteen Review ..................................................................................................................................................155 13.14 Chapter Thirteen Practice Exam ....................................................................................................................................160 Chapter 14: Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves ................................................................................................................................161 14.1 Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord ...................................................................................................................................161 14.2 Spinal Meninges.......................................................................................................................................................................163 14.3 Gray and White Matter..........................................................................................................................................................164 14.4 Anatomy of Spinal Nerves ...................................................................................................................................................164 14.5 Neuronal Pools .........................................................................................................................................................................165 14.6 Reflexes .......................................................................................................................................................................................166 14.7 Reinforcement and Inhibition............................................................................................................................................168 14.8 Chapter Fourteen Review....................................................................................................................................................169 14.9 Chapter Fourteen Practice Exam..................................................................................................................................172 Chapter 15: Functional Divisions of the Nervous System: Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System ...............173 15.1 The Somatic Nervous System.............................................................................................................................................173 15.2 Levels of Processing and Motor Control........................................................................................................................174 15.3 The Autonomic Nervous System.......................................................................................................................................175 15.4 Higher Order Functions........................................................................................................................................................176 15.5 Aging.............................................................................................................................................................................................178 15.6 Chapter Fifteen Review ........................................................................................................................................................179 15.7 Chapter Fifteen Practice Exam ..........................................................................................................................................183 Chapter 16: Senses ................................................................................................................................................................................184 ©2018 Achieve Page 6

Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide of 368 16.1 Sensory Receptors ..................................................................................................................................................................184 16.2 General Sensory Receptors .................................................................................................................................................186 16.3 Somatic Sensory Pathways .................................................................................................................................................187 16.4 Visceral Sensory Pathways .................................................................................................................................................188 16.5 Olfaction......................................................................................................................................................................................188 16.6 Gustation.....................................................................................................................................................................................189 16.7 Sight ..............................................................................................................................................................................................189 16.8 Hearing and Balance ..............................................................................................................................................................196 16.9 Chapter Sixteen Review........................................................................................................................................................200 16.10 Chapter Sixteen Practice Exam.......................................................................................................................................205 Chapter 17: The Endocrine System ................................................................................................................................................206 17.1 Hormones...................................................................................................................................................................................206 17.2 Pituitary Gland .........................................................................................................................................................................209 17.3 Thyroid Gland...........................................................................................................................................................................211 17.4 Parathyroid Glands.................................................................................................................................................................211 17.5 Suprarenal Glands...................................................................................................................................................................211 17.6 The Pineal Gland......................................................................................................................................................................213 17.7 Pancreas......................................................................................................................................................................................213 17.8 Secondary Endocrine Organs.............................................................................................................................................214 17.9 Cell Response to Hormones ................................................................................................................................................215 17.10 Role of Hormones in Growth ...........................................................................................................................................215 17.11 The Alarm Phase...................................................................................................................................................................216 17.12 The Effects of Hormones on Behavior .........................................................................................................................216 17.13 Aging and Hormone Production.....................................................................................................................................216 17.14 Chapter Seventeen Review...............................................................................................................................................217 17.15 Chapter Seventeen Practice Exam.................................................................................................................................221 Chapter 18: Blood ..................................................................................................................................................................................222 18.1 Blood ............................................................................................................................................................................................222 18.2 Characteristics of Blood........................................................................................................................................................222 18.3 Blood Composition .................................................................................................................................................................222 18.4 Red Blood Cells.........................................................................................................................................................................224 18.5 White Blood Cells ....................................................................................................................................................................227 18.6 Platelets.......................................................................................................................................................................................230 18.7 Hemostasis.................................................................................................................................................................................230 ©2018 Achieve Page 7

Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide of 368 18.8 Chapter Eighteen Review.....................................................................................................................................................233 18.9 Chapter Eighteen Practice Exam.......................................................................................................................................236 Chapter 19: The Heart..........................................................................................................................................................................237 19.1 An Introduction to the Cardiovascular System...........................................................................................................237 19.2 The Pericardium......................................................................................................................................................................237 19.3 Superficial Anatomy of the Heart .....................................................................................................................................237 19.4 Internal Anatomy and Organization................................................................................................................................240 19.5 The Blood Supply to the Heart...........................................................................................................................................243 19.6 Cardiac Physiology .................................................................................................................................................................244 19.7 The Electrocardiogram .........................................................................................................................................................246 19.8 The Action Potential in Cardiac Muscle Cells ..............................................................................................................246 19.9 Cardiac Cycle.............................................................................................................................................................................247 19.10 Heart Sounds ..........................................................................................................................................................................248 19.11 Hormones ................................................................................................................................................................................250 19.12 Chapter Nineteen Review .................................................................................................................................................251 19.13 Chapter Nineteen Practice Exam ...................................................................................................................................254 Chapter 20: Blood Vessels and Circulation .................................................................................................................................255 20.1 Blood Vessels ............................................................................................................................................................................255 20.2 Arteries........................................................................................................................................................................................257 20.3 Capillaries...................................................................................................................................................................................258 20.4 Vasomotion................................................................................................................................................................................259 20.5 Veins .............................................................................................................................................................................................261 20.6 Venous Valves...........................................................................................................................................................................261 20.7 The Distribution of Blood ....................................................................................................................................................261 20.8 Blood Pressure .........................................................................................................................................................................262 20.9 Autoregulation, Neural Mechanisms, and Endocrine Responses........................................................................266 20.10 Vascular Supply to Special Regions ..............................................................................................................................267 20.11 Systemic Arteries..................................................................................................................................................................269 20.12 Systemic Veins .......................................................................................................................................................................272 20.13 The Hepatic Portal System ...............................................................................................................................................273 20.14 Placental Blood Supply.......................................................................................................................................................274 20.15 Fetal Circulation in the Heart and Great Vessels.....................................................................................................274 20.16 Aging ..........................................................................................................................................................................................274 20.17 Chapter Twenty Review ....................................................................................................................................................275 ©2018 Achieve Page 8

Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide of 368 20.18 Chapter Twenty Practice Exam ......................................................................................................................................279 Chapter 21: The Lymphatic System................................................................................................................................................280 21.1 Anatomy......................................................................................................................................................................................280 21.2 Lymphatic Vessels ..................................................................................................................................................................280 21.3 Lymphocytes.............................................................................................................................................................................281 21.4 Lymphocyte Production.......................................................................................................................................................281 21.5 Lymphoid Tissues ...................................................................................................................................................................281 21.6 Lymph Flow...............................................................................................................................................................................282 21.7 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses..................................................................................................................284 21.8 Properties of Immunity ........................................................................................................................................................287 21.9 Hormones of the Immune System....................................................................................................................................289 21.10 Immune Disorders ...............................................................................................................................................................290 21.11 Aging ..........................................................................................................................................................................................290 21.12 Chapter Twenty-One Review...........................................................................................................................................290 21.13 Chapter Twenty-One Practice Exam.............................................................................................................................295 Chapter 22: Respiratory System......................................................................................................................................................296 22.1 Functions of the Respiratory System..............................................................................................................................296 22.2 Organization of the Respiratory System........................................................................................................................297 22.3 Upper Respiratory System ..................................................................................................................................................297 22.4 Lower Respiratory System..................................................................................................................................................299 22.5 Respiration ................................................................................................................................................................................302 22.6 The Gas Laws ............................................................................................................................................................................306 22.7 The Respiratory Centers of the Brain .............................................................................................................................307 22.8 Aging.............................................................................................................................................................................................308 22.9 Chapter Twenty-Two Review ............................................................................................................................................308 22.10 Chapter Twenty-Two Practice Exam............................................................................................................................313 Chapter 23: The Digestive System ..................................................................................................................................................314 23.1 Functions of the Digestive System ...................................................................................................................................314 23.2 The Digestive Organs and the Peritoneum...................................................................................................................314 23.3 The Movement of Digestive Materials............................................................................................................................315 23.4 Control of Digestive Functions ..........................................................................................................................................316 23.5 The Oral Cavity.........................................................................................................................................................................316 23.6 The Pharynx ..............................................................................................................................................................................318 23.7 The Esophagus .........................................................................................................................................................................318 ©2018 Achieve Page 9

Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide of 368 23.8 Stomach.......................................................................................................................................................................................320 23.9 The Small Intestine.................................................................................................................................................................321 23.10 Large Intestines.....................................................................................................................................................................321 23.11 The Rectum .............................................................................................................................................................................322 23.12 Secondary Digestive Organs ............................................................................................................................................322 23.13 Digestion ..................................................................................................................................................................................323 23.14 Nutrition...................................................................................................................................................................................324 23.15 Aging ..........................................................................................................................................................................................324 23.16 Chapter Twenty-Three Review.......................................................................................................................................325 23.17 Chapter Twenty-Three Practice Exam.........................................................................................................................330 Chapter 24: The Urinary System .....................................................................................................................................................331 24.1 The Kidneys...............................................................................................................................................................................331 24.2 Internal Structure of Kidneys.............................................................................................................................................332 24.3 Tubular Transport Factors..................................................................................................................................................334 24.4 Transport of Specific Substances......................................................................................................................................334 24.5 Diuresis .......................................................................................................................................................................................335 24.6 Hormonal Involvement.........................................................................................................................................................335 24.7 Aging.............................................................................................................................................................................................336 24.8 Chapter Twenty-Four Review............................................................................................................................................336 24.9 Chapter Twenty-Four Practice Exam..............................................................................................................................337 Chapter 25: The Reproductive System..........................................................................................................................................338 25.1 Male Reproductive System..................................................................................................................................................338 25.2 Spermatogenesis .....................................................................................................................................................................340 25.3 The Male Reproductive Tract.............................................................................................................................................341 25.4 Hormones and Male Reproductive Function...............................................................................................................343 25.5 Female Reproductive System.............................................................................................................................................344 25.6 The Uterus..................................................................................................................................................................................346 25.7 Hormones and the Female Reproductive Cycle..........................................................................................................348 25.8 Sexual Function........................................................................................................................................................................349 25.9 Aging.............................................................................................................................................................................................350 25.10 Chapter Twenty-Five Review ..........................................................................................................................................350 25.11 Chapter Twenty-Five Practice Exam ............................................................................................................................353 Chapter 26: Development and Inheritance .................................................................................................................................354 26.1 Prenatal .......................................................................................................................................................................................354 ©2018 Achieve Page 10